imixifliJ' 


CONC 


HOUSES 


H 


OSWALDCHERING 


UNIV.  OF  CALIF.  LIBRARY.  LOS  ANGEi^S 


LIBRARY  OF 

ARCHITECTURE  AND 

ALLIED  ARTS 


Gift  of 

The  Heirs 
of 
R.  Germain  Hubby,  A, I, A, 


CONCRETE  AND  STUCCO  HOUSES 


THE  COUNTRY   HOUSE   LIHRARY 

A  SERIES  OF  ARCHITECTURAL  BOOKS 

FOR  THE  LAYMAN 


THE  COUNTRY  HOUSE   LIBRARY 

BUNGALOWS  By  Umry  H.  Saylor 

THE  HALF-TIMBER  HOUSE 

By  Allen  W.  Jackton 

CONCRETE  AND  STUCCO  HOUSES 

By  Oswald  C.  Ilering 

ARCHITECTURAL  STYLES  FOR  COUNTRY 
HOMES 

A  sympoiium  by  prominent  archiUcts 


IN    PREPARATION 

RECLAIMING  THE  OLD  HOUSE 

By  Charles  EdiBard  Hooper 

THE  DUTCH  COLONIAL  HOUSE 

By  Aymar  Emhuiy,  II. 

FURNISHING  THE  HOME  OF  GOOD  TASTE 

By  I/ucy  Abbot  Throop 
THE  COLONIAL  HOUSE 

By  Joseph  Everett  Chandler 

HOMES  THAT  ARCHITECTS  HAVE    BUILT 
FOR  THEMSELVES 

By  the  Architects  and  Others 

McRRIDE,  NAST  &  COMPANY,  PUBLISHERS 


CONCRETE  AND  STUCCO 
HOUSES 


THE    USE     OF    PLASTIC    MATERIALS    IN    THE 

BUILDING  OF  COUNTRY  AND  SUBURBAN  HOUSES 

IN  A  MANNER  TO   INSURE  THE   QUALITIES  OF 

FITNESS,  DURABILITY   AND    BEAUTY 


BY 

OSWALD  C.  HERING 

AMERICAN  INSTITUTE  OF  AHCHITECTS 


NEW  YORK 

McBRIDE,  NAST  &  COMPANY 

1912 


Copyright,  191!,  hy 
McBbide,  Nast  &  Co. 


Published  AprU,  1912 


U.tuii  rtanniog 

lUO 


THIS    BOOK    IS    INSCHIBED   TO 

THE  AMERICAN  INSTITUTE  OF  ARCHITECTS 

AND   TO 

THE  CEMENT  INDUSTRY 

IN  ACITNOWLEDGMENT  OF  THEIR  MUTUAL  DESIEE 
TO  STIMULATE  A  POPULAR  INTKREST  IN  THE 
AECHITECTUEAL    USE    OF    CEMENT     PRODUCTS 


Preface 


IT  may  be  well  to  save  the  reader  from  idly  speculating  as  to 
why  the  illustrations  in  this  book  have  been  limited  to  the 

works  of  American  architects,  when  there  exist  in  foreign 
countries  so  many  masterpieces  from  which  beautiful  examples 
could  be  drawn.  When  the  text  was  completed  and  the  illus- 
trations selected  they  were  submitted  to  the  publishers  under  the 
comprehensive  title,  "The  Use  and  Abuse  of  Concrete  and 
Stucco  in  Their  Application  to  the  Rural  and  Suburban  Archi- 
tecture of  America,"  which  title,  while  explicit,  was  too  unwieldy 
for  practical  use. 

I  wish  to  acknowledge  my  indebtedness  to  the  architects  and 
others  who  have  so  courteously  supplied  illustrations  of  their 
works ;  to  Mr.  Henry  H.  Saylor,  for  valuable  suggestions  in  the 
arrangement  of  this  book  ;  to  my  father,  Dr.  Rudolph  Hering, 
and  to  Mr.  Albert  Moyer,  for  dissipating  the  clouds  that  obscured 
several  technical  peaks  ;  and  to  my  partner,  Mr.  Douglass  Fitch, 
for  his  cordial  aid  in  supervising  the  drawings  of  the  construc- 
tional details. 

Oswald  C.  Hering 


Contents 


Page 

Introduction xvii 

Country  and  Suburban  Development 1 

The  Composition  of  Stucco  and  Concrete    ....  11 

Stucco  as  an  Outside  Wall  Covering 20 

Stucco  on  Wood  P"'rame 32 

Stucco  on  Masonry 43 

The  Concrete  Block 50 

Furring 56 

Fire-resisting  and  Fireproof  Construction  ....  59 

Reinforced  Concrete 69 

Physical  Properties  of  Reinforced  Concrete  ...  76 

Esthetic  Possibilities  of  Reinforced  Concrete    .     .  83 

Manufactured  Stone 95 

The  DA^vN  of  American  Architecture 100 


The  Illustrations 


The  use  of  color  as  an  essential  in  the  treatment  of  concrete  build- 
ings            Frontispiece 

Facing  Paqe 

Albemarle  Park,  Nashville,  N.  C 2 

"Lyndanwalt,"  Abington,  Pa 3 

"Lyndanwalt,"  House  No.  1 4 

Plot  plan  of  "Lyndanwalt"  and  bird's-eye  view  of  Forest  Hills  Gar- 
dens, L.  1 5 

Bird's-eye  view  of  Garden  City,  L.  1 6 

Plan  of  half  a  suburban  block,  Garden  City,  L.  1 7 

Plan  of  a  long  narrow  lot,  Garden  City,  L.  1 8 

The  front  and  rear  of  houses  in  Roland  Park,  Baltimore,  Md 9 

Plot  plan  of  a  section  of  Roland  Park,  Baltimore,  Md 10 

Residence  of  Robert  Cluett,  Esq.,  Williamstown,  Mass 11 

Residence  of  Dr.  Benjamin  Tenney,  Manchester,  Mass 12 

"The  Fold,"  Cresskill,  N.  J 12 

Residence  of  Herbert  E.  Davis,  Esq.,  Glen  Ridge,  N.  J 13 

Residence  of  Dr.  W.  W.  Gilchrist,  St.  Martins,  Pa 14 

Residence  of  Lawrence  Buck,  architect,  Rogers  Park,  Chicago,  111.    .    .  15 

The  Rutherfurd  house,  Ccdarhurst,  L.  1 18 

A  house  at  Sewickley  Heights,  Pa 19 

A  garage  at  Bristol,  R.  1 20 

Entrance  to  a  house  at  Sewickley  Heights,  Pa 21 

Villa  of  Mrs.  Robert  Stafford,  Lloyd's  Neck,  Huntington,  L.  1 22 

A  house  on  York  Road,  near  Philadclj)liia,  Pa 23 

Residence  of  Wilhcrbec  Black,  Esq.,  Pclhain  Manor,  N.  Y 26 

Residence  of  Murray  Guggenheim,  Esq.,  Elboron,  N.  J 27 

Residence  of  H.  E.  Huntington,  Esq.,  Los  Robles  Ranch,  Cal 28 

Residence  of  I>ouis  Dejonge,  Esq.,  New  Brighton,  S.  1 29,  .SO 

Lt)ggia  on  the  residence  of  Gage  E.  Tarbell,  Esq.,  Garden  City,  L.  L  'ol 


xii  ILLUSTRATIONS 

Faciko  Paoe 

Residence  of  A.  H.  Marks,  Esq.,  Marblehcad,  Mass 3-1 

Details  of  an  entrance  doorway  of  a  stucco  house S5 

Entrance  detail  residence  of  Victor  Elting,  Esq.,  Winnetka,  111.      ...  44 

Residence  of  Percy  A.  Tomes,  Esq.,  Garden  City,  L.  1 45 

Residence  of  George  H.  Lowe,  Esq.,  Wellesley,  Ma.ss 45 

Entrance  porch,  residence  of  I.  Rich  Steers,  Esq.,  Port  Chester,  N.  Y,  52 

The  rational  use  of  concrete  blocks  in  the  residence  of  E.  S.  Harkness, 

Esq.,  New  London,  Conn 53 

A  detail  of  the  Harkness  residence,  New  London,  Conn 5i 

The  forecourt  of  the  Harkness  residence.  New  London,  Conn 55 

Two  views  of  the  McCorniick  residence,  Lake  Forest,  111 58 

Residence  of  Harold  F.  McCorniick,  Esq.,  Lake  Forest,  111 59 

Fountain  and  trellis  detail,  residence  of  Harold  F.  McCorniick,  Esq., 

Lake  Forest,  111 60 

Entrance  doorway  of  the  residence  of  Harold  F.  McCormick,  Esq.,  Lake 

Forest,  111 61 

A  detail  and  the  terrace  of  the  McCormick  residence.  Lake  Forest,  111.  62 

Fountain  and  lower  terrace  of  the  McCormick  residence.  Lake  Forest, 

111 63 

Entrance  doorway  of  the  residence  of  Wm.  G.  Mather,  Esq.,  Cleve- 
land, 0 66 

The  Mather  residence  from  the  lake,  Cleveland,  0 67 

Fountain  detail  of  the  Mather  residence,  Cleveland,  0 68 

A  view  of  the  Mather  residence  from  the  garden 69 

Entrance    detail    residence    of    Daniel    Bacon,    Esq.,    Ardsley-on-the- 

Iludson,  N.  Y 76 

Residence  of  Daniel  Bacon,  Esq.,  Ardsley-on-the-Hudson,  N.  Y.    .    .    .  77 

Two  views  of  the  Havemeyer  house,  Bayberry  Point,  L.  1 78 

The  part  played  by  vines  in  the  Havemeyer  house 79 

Residence  of  James  Grant  Forbes,  Esq.,  Dover,  Mass 82 

Studio  on  the  estate  of  A.  C.  Bartlett,  Esq.,  Lake  Geneva,  Wis.     ...  83 

The  terrace,  residence  of  L.  M.  Stumer,  Esq.,  Homewood,  111 84 

Residence  of  L.  M.  Stumer,  Esq.,  Homewood,  111 85 

Administration  Building,  Washington  Park,  Chicago,  111.,  and  a  detail 

of  the  concrete  surface  texture 86 

Decorative  brickwork  framing  windows  in  the  residence  of  E.  R.  Marvin, 

Esq.,  Pittsburgh,  Pa 87 

DeUiil  showing  a  variety  of  concrete  surface  treatment.  Neighborhood 

Club,  Chicago,  111 87 

Concrete  used  as  garden  walls  and  accessories 90 


ILLUSTRATIONS  xiii 

FxciNa  Page 

Garden  steps  and  a  garden  wall  of  concrete 91 

Porte-cochere,  residence  of  Murray  Guggenheim,  Esq.,  Elberon,  N.  J.  9-i 

Entrance  detail,  residence  of  R.  A.  C.  Smith,  Esq.,  Greenwich,  Conn.  95 

Detail  of  the  residence  of  E.  R.  Kellam,  Esq.,  Pasadena,  Cal 98 

A  Florentine  vase  and  one  from  the  Vatican,  reproduced  in  manufactured 

stone 99 

Front  and  terrace,  residence  of  E.  L.  Ryerson,  Esq.,  Lake  Forest,  111.  100 

Residence  of  E.  E.  Boynton,  Esq.,  Rochester,  N.  Y 101 

"Casa  del  Ponte,"  Rowayton,  Conn 102 

The  Voorhees  residence  near  Philadelphia,  Pa 103 


CONCRETE 

AND  STUCCO 

HOUSES 


Introduction 


THE  need  of  a  clearer  comprehension  of  the  use  and  abuse 
of  concrete  and  stucco  than  is  possessed  by  the  average  in- 
dividual, including  not  a  few  architects  and  builders,  has 
led  to  the  preparation  of  this  little  book  wherein  the  author  has 
attempted  a  brief  description  of  the  composition  of  these  two 
building  materials,  citing  the  various  methods  of  their  application 
to  the  solution  of  problems  in  domestic  architecture  and  indicating 
how  they  may  be  made  to  contribute  to  the  realization  of  a  native 
style.  Although  in  citj'  residences,  commercial  buildings,  bridges, 
subways,  reservoirs  and  many  other  types  of  structure,  concrete 
and  stucco  are  advisedly  employed,  the  greatest  artistic  success 
with  the  use  of  these  materials  has  been  achieved  so  far  in  country 
homes,  their  gardens  and  outbuildings. 

While  concrete  and  stucco  have  been  factors  in  building  con- 
struction for  centuries  past,  the  recent  economic  production  and 
more  general  use  of  Portland  cement  has  endowed  them  with 
properties  that  have  so  materially  enlarged  their  sphere  of  use- 
fulness that  they  are  regarded  in  the  light  of  new  products.  The 
very  fact,  however,  that  added  strength  and  durability  has  been 
given  to  them  by  this  powerful  medium,  has  encouraged  ignorant 
and  unscrupulous  persons  to  disregard  its  limitations,  as  innu- 
merable examples  of  faulty  design  and  construction  bear  witness. 
Properly  composed  and  applied,  stucco  becomes  a  legitimate 
covering  for  the  protection  and  beautifying  of  porous  and  un- 
sightly walls. 


xviu  INTRODUCTION 

Properly  mixed  and  formed,  concrete  is  the  most  sanitary 
and  durable  of  all  building  materials,  and  is  susceptible  of  great 
beauty  when  care  and  judgment  are  exercised  in  the  selection  of 
aggregate  (the  sand  and  gravel  used  >vith  the  cement)  of  suit- 
able size  and  agreeable  color. 

It  is  hoped  that  the  statements  and  deductions  contained  in 
the  following  pages  may  lead  to  a  better  understanding  of  the 
properties  of  these  two  materials,  to  a  fuller  appreciation  of 
their  structural  and  esthetic  attributes,  and  to  a  more  general 
recognition  of  their  ready  adaptability  to  the  logical  development 
of  American  Architecture. 


Country  and  Suburban  Development 


BEFORE  launching  into  the  description  of  the  composition, 
use  and  possibihties  of  concrete  and  stucco  in  house  con- 
struction, it  would  be  well  to  cast  an  eye  over  the  field  that 
promises  the  greatest  encouragement  to  domestic  architecture: 
the  countryside,  accessible  and  available  since  the  advent  of  the 
automobile,  and  still  undefiled  by  the  speculative  builder;  and  the 
suburb,  the  compromise  of  the  daily  toiler  with  his  love  of  nature, 
and  mostly  marred  by  the  absence  of  comprehensive  schemes  of 
development. 

We  have  heard  a  gi-eat  deal  about  our  ugly  cities,  barren  of 
architecture,  disfigured  and  dishonored  by  the  speculative  builder. 
For  years  past  buildings  stupidly  designed  and  criminally  built 
have  been  our  closest  acquaintances.  From  time  to  time  an  in- 
trepid architect  has  conceived  a  "  City  Beautiful,"  only  to  have 
his  plan  ridiculed,  denounced  or  quietly  shelved.  Recent  years, 
however,  have  brought  about  a  marked  change  in  the  attitude 
of  the  public  toward  the  field  of  art.  By  reason  of  the  lower  cost 
and  greater  ease  of  travel,  the  accessibility  of  books  and  pictures, 
and  through  the  power  and  influence  of  those  strange  hybrids 
of  virtue  and  villainy,  the  daily  newspapers,  the  people  of  our 
land  are  beginning  to  learn  that  good  art  is  a  good  investment. 
A  wcll-plaiuied  commercial  building  with  a  pleasing  facade  will 
generally  attract  more  tenants  of  a  better  class  than  a  building 
in  the  design  of  which  no  intelligent  thought  or  skill  has  been 
employed. 

But  while  evidence  abounds  of  more  than  a  da^^'ning  appre- 
ciation of  good  urban  architecture,  and  jiopular  feeling  akin  to 
personal  injury  and  shame  is  aroused  over  any  new  disfigure- 


2  COXCRETE   AND    STUCCO   HOUSES 

ments  of  our  cities  and  towns,  the  prostitution  of  the  suburb  and 
the  countryside  continues.  Here  and  there  is  seen  the  guiding 
spirit  of  some  individual,  or  company  of  men,  of  culture  and 
foresight,  endeavoring  to  reclaim  the  debauched  settlements  of 
the  speculative  builder  and  to  inaugurate  new  developments  upon 
a  sound  and  worthy  basis.  A  nimiber  of  suburban  tracts  of  land 
are  now  imdergoing  this  wise  and  providential  process  of  reclama- 
tion. Originally  laid  out  with  no  consideration  for  future  growth 
and  appearance,  cut  up  into  narrow  building  lots  and  sold  to 
speculative  builders  who  erected  thereon  houses  through  which 
the  elements  whistled  a  dismal  dirge  to  the  expectations  of  the 
trusting  purchasers,  these  properties  present  a  sad  spectacle  of 
nature  misunderstood  and  abused. 

Although  this  blindness  to,  and  contempt  for,  the  wonderful 
possibihties  of  beautifying  our  suburbs  and  country  estates  still 
exists,  and  deceptive  real  estate  projects  continue  to  flourish,  and 
through  ignorance  or  sheer  brutality  the  land  and  building 
speculator  goes  on  with  his  destructive  work,  there  is  happily 
a  vigorous  movement  on  foot  to  jout  an  end  to  the  desecration 
of  the  city's  en\4rons  and  to  give  fuller  protection  to  the  suburban 
and  country  home-seeker.  Successful  developments,  where  in- 
telligent workmansliip  has  been  employed,  are  now  not  imcom- 
mon,  proving  that  a  proper  conception  of  landscape  and  build- 
ing, executed  in  a  thorough,  workmanlike  manner,  is  good 
business. 

Some  years  ago  the  author,  with  the  avowed  purpose  of  giv- 
ing a  practical  demonstration  of  what  were  then  mostly  theories, 
purchased  a  small  suburban  lot  in  a  sparsely  settled  community 
fifteen  minutes  from  the  nearest  railroad  station,  and  built  thereon 
a  house  designed  to  meet  the  requirements  of  liis  family,  at  the 
same  time  adapting  it  to  the  needs  of  the  average  suburbanite. 
Well  built  and  equipped,  and  of  a  style  of  architecture  suited  to 
its  purpose  and  environment,  this  house  proved  to  be  a  comfort- 


'Mis  ideal  f(ir  lliis  wlmli-  l;iii<lsrjipf  is  In  iiinki-  il  MMiicwIial  likr  an  l-'.ii;;li-.li  park  ami 
siimcwliiit  like  an  arliurrluin  " 


Tiro  rteics  0/  " Lyndnntralt,"  Ahinolon,  Pa.  Osimltl  C.  Ihrlnn.  (irchttict 

"No  oust-iron  system  of  botany  will  lie  allowcii  to  spoil  the  view" 


COUNTRY  AND  SUBURBAN  DEVELOPMENT  3 

able  home,  sufficiently  agreeable  in  the  arrangement  of  rooms, 
proportion  and  color  to  attract  attention.  Such  houses  as  already 
stood  in  the  neighborhood  were  mostly  products  of  the  village 
carpenter,  of  no  design,  poor  in  construction  and  lacking  those 
essentials  which  distinguish  a  mere  house  —  a  collection  of  rooms 
juggled  together  in  haphazard  fashion  —  from  a  home,  where 
time,  thought  and  care  have  been  expended  in  planning  an  in- 
teresting and  practical  structure  inside  and  out.  Within  four 
years  there  grew  up  about  this  "  pioneer "  a  dozen  or  more 
homes,  all  well  built  and  some  with  conspicuous  architectural 
merit  which  materially  enhanced  both  the  beauty  and  value  of 
this  and  neighboring  properties.  The  "  pioneer  "  was  then  sold 
at  a  handsome  profit,  considerably  greater  than  the  advance  in 
realty  values  would  account  for.  The  author's  expectations  had 
been  more  than  realized. 

In  domestic  arcliitecture  the  ultimate  cost  is  not  generally  of 
such  paramount  importance,  for  example,  as  in  commercial  work, 
where  the  revenue  from  the  investment  is  the  principal  cause  of 
the  building.  Questions  of  sentiment  and  the  indulgence  of  per- 
sonal fancy  often  run  up  the  cost  of  a  private  dwelHng  after  the 
work  has  bcgim,  a  ruinous  course  were  the  project  a  business 
venture  pure  and  simple.  In  the  development  of  a  tract  of  land 
for  domestic  purposes  the  fact  that  the  cost  of  the  undertaking 
is  of  the  first  importance  must  not  be  lost  sight  of.  In  other 
words,  the  proposition  is  a  commercial  one,  even  though  the 
product  is  for  domestic  use.  To  combine  artistic  excellence  with 
honest  and  efficient  workmanship,  and  place  both  upon  a  paying 
basis  is,  therefore,  the  problem  that  confronts  the  professional 
adviser  of  the  men  whose  money  he  proposes  to  spend  in  j)lan- 
ning  for  the  future  homes  of  the  city's  population;  a  grave  re- 
sponsibility, one  which  will  require  of  the  architect  even  a  broader 
education  and  a  more  general  knowledge  of  affairs  than  are 
commonly  expected  of  him. 


4  CONCRETE   AND    STUCCO   HOUSES 

There  are  many  large  land  development  companies  now  op- 
erating in  the  environs  of  our  cities,  and  their  recognition  of  the 
arcliitect's  sers'ices  in  both  executive  and  consulting  capacities  is 
becoming  more  general  in  all  classes  of  suburban  property.  This 
comparatively  new  field  for  the  architect's  labors  has  possibilities 
of  the  greatest  interest  and  imjjortance  both  to  liimself,  to  real 
estate  companies  and  to  the  general  public.  The  trend  to  the 
suburbs  and  coimtry  is  unmistakable.  The  era  of  the  cave 
dweller  is  passing.  Improved  transit  facilities  have  brought 
country  property  to  the  city's  door,  and  a  man  of  average  in- 
telligence with  a  few  thousand  dollars  saved  up  has  no  longer 
anj'  difficulty  in  securing  as  a  good  investment  a  site  within  rea- 
sonable commuting  distance  of  the  city's  center,  and  in  having 
a  comfortable  and  attractive  home  built  which  he  can  dispose 
of,  if  necessary,  at  a  profit  exceeding  that  of  the  rise  in  value  of 
the  land. 

In  contrast  to  the  "  hit  or  miss  "  methods  of  the  average 
suburban  real  estate  promoter,  the  author  calls  attention  to  the 
five  tracts  of  land  illustrated  in  this  chapter,  each  one  represent- 
ing a  comprehensive  plan  evolved  from  a  careful  and  intelligent 
study  of  the  topography  and  the  needs  of  the  prospective 
community. 

Albemarle  Park  at  Asheville,  North  Carolina,  consists  of 
thirty-six  acres  situated  on  the  slopes  of  a  mountain  about  a 
mile  from  the  center  of  the  city.  The  grades  are  steep  and  demand 
winding  roads,  of  which  advantage  has  been  taken  to  produce 
natural  woodland  efi'ects  whereby  the  essential  beauties  of  the 
place  are  retained.  A  sufficient  number  of  open  spaces  pro\"ide 
for  the  location  of  an  inn  and  of  a  group  of  cottages,  to  each  of 
which  has  been  allotted  a  proportionate  amount  of  lawn,  shrub- 
bery and  flowers. 

"  LjTidanwalt,"  in  Abington,  Pennsylvania,  presents  a  simi- 
lar topographical  problem  in  its  two-hundred-odd  acres  of  rolling 


^■f^ . 

' 

..J^ 

„  ■               J 

■■-jm 

' l.ynttnntrall."    l''!':^'"i    /m  •      •   ' 

"N.ili.r  li»«  siui^lv  il  fils  llw  IiiimIm  a|M-  ..«iiin  tc.  111.-  lia<  kKn.mi.l  .if  v.,»«U.     I'lil  llmt  liuliso 
ill  til.-  pa>liir.-  li.-iir  111.-  ini.l.ll.-  ..f  tin-  |.i.liir.-  aii.l  lialf  it-*  allra.li.iii>  «.ml.l  In-  p«n.- 


R. 


'LINDANWAL' 


J-'«J 


■■l.yi, 


0 


y,^ 


/ia>iiii-w.mrAw»iF 


,4V 


Oxiftlhl  ('.  J/truii;.  nufnu^i 


■"llis  social  iilcal  is  to  liuvi-  alxmt  a  dozen  coiifii-Mial  iiciglibors  who  will  do  notliing 

lo  ruin  llic  l:iiirls(:i|ic" 


-2^^^^yS 


,        iXl 


Crosvenor  Aucrbury,  architect 
OtmsUad  Bros.,  landscape  architects 

'Forest  Hills  (iardens  is  an  intort'stint;  example  of  eo-operativc  design  wherein  the  owner 

has  engaged  the  services  of   men  experienced  in    real  estate  ilevelopnient. 

domestic  architecture,  landscape  design  and  sociology" 


COUNTRY  AND  SUBURBAN  DEVELOPMENT  5 

meadows  and  woodland  in  the  Huntington  Valley,  scarcely  forty 
minutes'  train  ride  from  the  heart  of  Philadelphia.  Here  the 
building  restrictions  are  hide-bound.  The  owner  controls  the  sit- 
uation by  his  determination  to  limit  the  "  development  "  to  about 
a  dozen  congenial  neighbors  who  will  respect  the  landscape  and 
contribute  to  the  enhancement  of  its  beauty.  The  following  pub- 
lished comment  of  Wilhelm  INIiller,  the  horticulturist,  upon  the 
location  of  the  first  house  built  for  sale  in  Lyndanwalt,  indicates 
the  scope  of  this  interesting  experiment. 

"  I  have  visited  LjTidanwalt  at  every  season  of  the  year  and 
have  come  to  know  the  owner's  ideals.  Thej'  are  very  different 
from  those  of  the  unhappy  people  who  have  half  a  dozen  houses 
but  no  home  because  they  have  no  interest  in  the  land.     Mr. 

H has  about  seven  ideals  in  the  development  of  his  home  — 

a  social  ideal,  and  an  ideal  for  his  park,  his  grove,  his  lake,  his 
rocks,  his  woods  and  his  pastures. 

"  His  social  ideal  is  to  have  about  a  dozen  congenial  neigh- 
bors who  will  do  notliing  to  ruin  the  landscape.  Therefore  he 
has  set  aside  about  seventy-five  acres  for  future  neighbors,  each 
of  whom  may  have  five  to  eight  acres.  The  whole  area  has  been 
carefully  considered  by  a  landscape  designer  so  that  everything 
will  be  harmonious.  As  an  example  of  the  problems  which  de- 
light Mr.  II and  every  true  country  gentleman,  consider 

the  placing  of  house  No.  1,  the  first  house  that  Mr.  II has 

built  to  attract  neighbors  and  to  show  what  the  aim  of  the  colony 
is.  Notice  how  snugly  it  fits  the  landscape,  owing  to  the  l)ack- 
ground  of  woods.  Put  that  house  in  the  pasture  near  the  middle 
of  the  picture  and  half  its  attractiveness  would  be  gone.  Again, 
the  horizontal  lines  of  the  house  harniniii/e  with  the  plateau  on 
which  it  stands.  Put  the  house  on  the  hillside  near  the  vegetable 
garden,  and  it  would  not  fit  at  all.  Perliaps  such  considerations 
do  not  appeal  to  you.    Very  well,  you  could  not  buy  this  house. 

Mr.   H can  and  will  wait  five  or  even  twenty  years,   if 

necessary,  until  he  finds  someone  who  does  believe  in  making  a 
house  harmonize  with  its  enviroimicnt,  instead  of  standing  out 
in  strong  contrast,  as  most  American  places  do. 


6  COXCRETE   AND    STUCCO   HOUSES 

"  His  ideal  for  this  whole  landscape  is  to  make  it  somewhat 
like  an  English  park  and  somewhat  like  an  arhoretum.  It  will 
be  hke  a  park  in  having  generous  open  spaces  and  grazing  cattle. 
It  wiU  be  hke  the  Arnold  Arboretum  on  a  small  scale  m  having 
as  many  kinds  of  trees  as  is  proper,  and  each  genus  by  itself  so 
far  as  practicable,  but  native  trees  dominant  ever3^vhere.  No 
cast-iron  system  of  botany  will  be  allowed  to  spoil  a  view.  So, 
too,  with  the  villa  sites.  On  one  particular  knoll  no  house  will  be 
allowed,  because  it  would  cut  off  the  best  vista  of  the  valley." 

It  is  worthy  of  record  that  ]\Ir.  H had  scarcely  more  than 

a  year  to  wait  before  effecting  a  satisfactory  sale  of  House  No.  1 
with  the  ten  acres  allotted  to  it. 

Forest  Hills  Gardens,  a  tract  of  142  acres  near  Jamaica, 
Long  Island,  and  not  over  fifteen  minutes'  ride  from  the  Penn- 
sylvania Station  in  New  York  City,  is  an  interesting  example 
of  co-operative  design  wherein  the  owner,  the  Sage  Foundation 
Homes  Company,  has  engaged  the  services  of  men  experienced 
in  real  estate  development,  domestic  arcliitecture,  landscape  de- 
sign and  sociolog}',  to  lay  out  and  establish  a  "  garden  city  "  as 
an  inducement  to  peoj^le  of  moderate  means  to  give  up  the  chff- 
dwelling  life  in  the  city's  flats  and  tenements,  and,  at  no  greater 
expense  or  sacrifice  of  time  in  travehng  back  and  forth,  to  ac- 
quire an  individual  home  in  a  healthful  and  attractive  enxdron- 
ment.  The  undertaking  is  primarily  a  business  enterprise,  al- 
though it  has  a  distinct  educational  purpose.  If  it  proves  to  be 
a  profitable  venture,  there  is  no  doubt  that  the  same  ideas  will 
be  extensively  employed  in  future  developments,  for  the  under- 
lying principles  are  excellent. 

The  Company  believes  that  buildings  of  tasteful  design,  con- 
structed of  brick,  concrete  or  other  permanent  material,  even  at 
greater  initial  cost,  are  really  more  economical,  by  reason  of  their 
durability  and  the  lower  cost  of  maintenance,  than  the  repulsive, 
poorly  built  structures  which  are  too  often  found  in  New  York's 


Treatment  of  half  a  suburban  hi...i.. 


CLsuMd  c.  Niriiii;,  (iTcliUtct 


' There  are  many  large  land  (lev<'l<ipinent  ciinipanies  now  operating  in  the  environs 

of  our  cities  and  thi-ir  reeognition  of  the  arehiteet's  services  in   loth 

executive  and  consulting  capiuitics  is  becoming  general" 


COUNTRY  AND  SUBURBAN  DEVELOPMENT  7 

outlying  districts.  The  restrictions  are  necessarily  severe  in  order 
that  the  aim  in  creatuig  a  homogeneous  and  congenial  community 
may  be  fulfilled.  References  are  required  and  a  thorough  inves- 
tigation made  of  the  character  and  standing  of  each  apphcant. 
Plans  of  proposed  houses  must  be  approved  by  the  Company 
and  conform  to  the  standard  of  architecture  established  by  the 
buildings  already  erected.  Among  the  distinct  innovations  is  the 
setting  apart  of  certain  portions  of  the  property  for  groups  of 
connected  houses,  the  single  arcliitectural  composition  being  pro- 
portioned to  the  size  of  the  site.  So  designed  and  spaced,  these 
groups  of  buildings  will  enhance  the  appearance  of  the  projierty 
as  a  whole  and  lend  to  it  an  interest  and  variety  not  obtainable 
in  detached  dwellings  set  near  together  or  built  up  in  "  blocks  " 
between  street  hues.  Certain  areas  have  been  set  apart  for  the 
common  use  and  enjoyment  of  the  residents,  in  the  shape  of  a 
public  Green,  the  Station  Square,  small  public  parks  and,  finall)', 
several  enclosed  private  parks  occupying  the  interior  portion  of 
some  of  the  blocks  and  intended  for  the  exclusive  use  of  those 
living  on  the  surrounding  lots,  especially  for  the  smaller  cliildren, 
who  consequentlj'  are  not  forced  to  play  upon  the  streets.  These 
enclosed  playgrounds  are  reached  directly  from  the  back  yards 
of  most  of  the  houses  in  the  block. 

In  laying  out  the  pro})erty  the  landscape  designer  has  striven 
to  secure  the  full  benefit  from  two  other  important  principles  of 
city  j)lanniiig.  The  first  relates  to  the  main  thoroughfares,  which 
should  be  direct,  convenient  and  of  ample  width  and  carefully 
related  to  the  topography.  The  second  relates  to  those  streets 
Aviiich  are  not  needed  as  thoroughfares,  and  which  shouhl  be 
planned  and  constructed  to  discourage  their  use  as  such,  and  to 
meet  the  purpose  of  quiet,  attractive  residence  streets,  narrow 
and  winding,  giving  to  them  a  cozy,  self-contained  domestic  char- 
acter in  contrast  to  the  straight,  open,  wind-swept  thoroughfares 
devoted  to  traffic 


8  CONCRETE   AND    STUCCO   HOUSES 

The  problem  in  Garden  City,  Long  Island,  presented  no 
great  physical  difficulties.  The  land  is  a  flat,  open,  treeless  plain 
with  a  foot  or  more  of  rich  soil  covering  a  deep  bed  of  gravel. 
But  this  very  absence  of  lulls  and  dales  and  trees  and  rocks  re- 
moves one  of  the  incentives  for  the  engagement  of  an  architect 
and  landscape  designer.  It  is  so  simple,  reasons  the  promoter, 
"why  pay  for  professional  advice?  "With  a  brass-bound  scale  and 
6H  pencil  he  himself  "  designs  "  the  beautiful  checkerboard  of 
streets,  avenues  and  boulevards,  all  bordered  \nth  cement  side- 
walks and  picketed  with  inch-and-a-half  alternating  poplars  and 
pin  oaks,  at  $1.50  each,  careful  to  make  each  "  block  "  divisible 
by  twenty,  the  "  irreducible  minimum  "  in  building  lots,  and  — 
presto  I  —  the  property  plan  is  ready  for  distribution  among  the 
hungry  salesmen. 

That  such  methods  were  improved  upon  in  the  planning  of 
Garden  Citj-,  despite  the  simplicity  of  its  topography,  is  evidenced 
by  the  accompanying  illustrations. 

Jamaica  Estates  is  a  beautiful  stretch  of  woodland  within  the 
limits  of  New  York  City,  prolific  in  vistas  and  verdure  by  reason 
of  skillful  planning  and  planting.  This  property  and  a  large 
undeveloped  acreage  to  the  east  is  destined  to  become  one  of  the 
most  beautiful  residential  parks  in  America,  provided  no  liberties 
are  taken  with  the  landscape,  and  the  restrictions  upon  the  type 
of  dwellings  are  rigidlj'  enforced. 

A  residential  park  noted  for  its  beauty  and  general  excellence 
in  the  plan  and  structure  of  its  streets  and  dwelhngs  is  Roland 
Park,  Baltimore,  INId.  To  country  and  suburban  real  estate  pro- 
moters who  claim  that  restrictions  upon  the  kind  and  quality  of 
the  architecture  is  "  impractical "  and  would  prevent  a  ready 
sale  of  the  land,  the  following  extract  from  the  printed  restric- 
tions of  Roland  Park  should  be  of  interest : 

"  A  drawing  showing  the  location  of  the  house  on  the  lot,  the 
proposed  finished  grades,  and  the  relative  levels  of  the  lot  and 


Trtatmenl  of  a  lonff  narrow 
plot  in  Garden  City,  L.  1 


Oswald  C.  Herino.  architect 


■   i 


xC^ 


z 


p  ^ 


"  Siiocessful  cirviliipiiiiiil- 
arriKil  nowiinct  lilt  Mil  >n  \\  hm- 
intrlli^t'iil  wnrkiMitiislii|>  lia> 
Imimi  I'liiployiMi.  pniv'iii^  tliul 
a  prii|>iT<c)ii(i'(>li(iii  (if  laiiil- 
scnpo  anil  ImililiiiK  cxi-ctiti'il 
in  a  tlixniiiKli  norkniaiiliki' 
niannrr  !■*  K'hhI  liiiHini'ss" 


'No  rc>iiliin  *.-  >liall  Itt'  frf<'tr(i  costing;  less  than   .   .   .   tlumsanrl  r] 
walls  sliall  Ik'  of  brick,  stone,  {'oncrt'te.  stiirro  of  oIIrt  niatnial  i 


:)llars:  the  exterior 
)f  similar  ehara<-ter* 


Two  nctcs  of  a  section  of  KoUiml  I'tirk.  liallimorc,  MU. 


h'dn-ard  L.  I'atmtr.  Jr.,  arc/tiuct 


**If  any  building  is  erected  such  liuildin^  shall  ite  made  according  to  plans  (including  exterior 
color  scheme,  grading  and  location  of  Iniilding)  approved  by  Ruhiiui  Park  Company" 


COUNTRY  AND  SUBURBAN  DEVELOPMENT  9 

street  grades  of  the  first  floor,  must  be  furnished  before  the 
Company  can  consider  the  working  drawings  for  approval. 

"  In  order  to  avoid,  as  far  as  possible,  needless  work  and  ex- 
pense, the  Company  will  consent  to  a  tentative  consideration  of 
preliminary  sketches.     Such  consideration  is,  however,  distinctly 


A  lot  plan  of  Roland  Park,  Baltimore,  Md.,  where  the  gridiron  system  of 
di\'iding  the  land  into  precisely  synunctrical  lots  has  not  been  followed 

tentative,  and  approval  of  i)lans  can  be  based  only  upon  the 
completed  working  drawings  from  which  the  house  is  to  be  built. 

"  When  the  house  is  to  be  located  on  a  corner  lot,  either  it 
shoidd  have  its  principal  entrance  toward  the  street  on  which 
the  lot  normally  fronts,  or,  if  the  entrance  is  to  be  on  the  side 
street,  care  must  be  taken  that  the  house  be  so  designed  that  it 
does  not  back  up  against  the  adjoining  lot  to  the  detriment  of 
the  latter. 

"  No  residence  or  dwelling-house  shall  be  erected  costing  less 
than thousand  dollars;  the  exterior  exposed  surfaces  of 


10  CONCRETE   AND    STUCCO   HOUSES 

the  walls,  with  the  exception  of  trims  and  moldings,  shall  be  of 
brick,  stone,  concrete,  stucco,  or  other  material  of  similar  charac- 
ter, and  if  any  building  is  erected,  or  any  alterations  made,  such 
building  or  such  alterations  shall  be  made  according  to  plans 
(including  exterior  color  scheme,  grading  plan,  and  the  location 
of  such  building)  wliich  shall  have  been  approved  by  Roland 
Park  Company." 

Thus  Nature,  many  times  rebuffed,  still  lingers  invitingly 
near.  Close  to  the  marts  of  our  daily  toil  she  presents  oppor- 
tunities for  the  most  healthful  enjoyment  of  life.  From  the  city, 
with  its  arcliitecture  compact  and  towering  in  the  crowded  dis- 
tricts, to  the  country,  with  its  wooded  hills  and  flowering  plains, 
its  inland  waterwaj's  and  endless  seashore,  there  is  a  promise  of 
wonderfully  beautiful  dwelling-places  for  mankind.  To  acliieve 
future  distinction  for  our  municipalities  and  rural  districts  is  the 
task  of  the  people,  aided  by  the  real  estate  operator,  the  architect 
and  the  engineer,  whose  services  must  be  of  a  character  to  war- 
rant the  confidence  and  respect  of  those  who  will  of  necessity 
furnish  the  "  sinews  of  war." 


c 

-3 


The   Composition  of  Stucco  and  Concrete 


THE  terms  "  plaster,"  "  cement,"  "  stucco  "  and  "  concrete  " 
are  so  often  confounded,  even  to  the  extent  of  employing 
them  as  synonjins,  that  it  would  be  well  to  define  these 
words  in  the  sense  they  will  be  used  in  the  pages  to  follow,  and 
to  explain  the  meaning  of  a  few  other  words  necessarily  em- 
ployed in  a  description  of  the  uses  of  these  materials  in  building 
construction. 

Plaster  is  a  mixture  of  sand,  lime,  hair  and  water,  and  is 
applied  as  an  inside  facing  to  the  walls  of  a  structure.  Pa- 
tent plasters  of  various  compositions  are  manufactured  to-day 
and,  when  mixed  with  water  at  the  building,  are  ready  for 
use. 

Cement,  that  is  to  say,  Portland  cement  ( for  natural  cement 
and  imzzuolaua  are  not  desirable  in  the  preparation  of  stucco  and 
concrete),  is  a  finely  pulverized  product  resulting  from  the  cal- 
cination to  incipient  fusion  of  an  intimate  mixture  of  properly 
proportioned  argillaceous  and  calcareous  materials. 

Almost  all  "  standard  "  Portland  cements,  that  is,  brands 
which  fulfill  the  requirements  of  the  standard  specification,  are 
suitable  for  use  in  the  construction  of  residences.  The  best 
brands  are  those  which  are  of  uniformly  correct  composition  and 
that  have  slow-setting  and  quick-hardening  properties.  A  good 
cement  should  develop  initial  set  in  not  less  than  tliirty  minutes, 
but  must  develop  hard  set  in  not  less  than  one  hour,  nor  in  more 
than  ten  hours.  No  time,  therefore,  should  l)e  lost,  after  adding 
water  to  the  cement  and  aggregate,  in  placing  the  mixture  in  the 
forms.  As  an  early  removal  of  the  forms  is  economical,  and  yet 
sufficient  time  is  desired  to  place  the  concrete  in  the  molds,  the 


12  CONCRETE   AND    STUCCO    HOUSES 

advantage  of  a  cement  having  slow  initial  and  quick-hardening 
sets  is  obvious. 

Stucco  is  a  carefully  proportioned  mixture  of  Portland 
cement  and  sand  (or  pulverized  stone)  with  the  addition  of 
water,  applied  as  a  covering  to  the  unfinished  outside  wall  of 
a  structure,  the  construction  of  the  wall  being  in  stone,  brick, 
tile,  concrete  or  wood.  Lime  is  often  used  as  an  ingredient  of 
stucco  to  make  it  more  plastic  and  so  that  the  mixture  will 
"  work  "  more  easily  under  the  trowel.  If  ordinary  quick-lime 
is  used,  however,  its  admission  is  more  than  likely  to  be  for  the 
purpose  of  effecting  a  saving  in  first  cost.  This  is  poor  economy, 
for  caustic  lime  as  ordinarily  prepared  at  the  building  site  is 
a  factor  neither  of  strength  nor  of  durability.  If  it  is  desired 
to  use  lime  it  should  be  hydrated. 

Hydrated  hme  is,  as  its  name  implies,  a  compound  formed 
by  the  union  of  lime  and  water.  Fresh  caustic  lime  is  crushed 
and  treated  with  just  sufficient  water  to  combine  with  it  chem- 
ically, producing  a  drj^  powder.  Care  should  be  taken  to  add 
neither  too  little  water  to  complete  the  chemical  union  and  so 
permit  particles  of  the  lime  to  remain  and  "  slake  "  at  a  later 
day,  as  a  component  part  of  the  mortar,  nor  so  great  an  amount 
as  to  ijroduce  a  paste. 

Stucco  is  often  called  a  "  sham  "  for  the  reason  that  it  is 
popularly  assumed  to  be  an  imitation  of  stone,  but  this  is  a 
false  notion.  Stucco  in  the  past  was  invariably  employed  to 
cover  some  foreign  surface  of  unsightly  appearance,  and  as  such 
performs  a  legitimate  office. 

Concrete  is  a  mixture  in  kno^vn  ratio  of  Portland  cement,  sand 
and  broken  stone,  with  the  addition  of  water.  Gravel,  broken 
brick,  marble  chips  or  other  similar  material  may  be  substituted 
for,  or  used  in  connection  with,  the  broken  stone.  The  mixture  is 
poured  into  molds  or  forms,  and  hardens  when  the  cement  has 
"  set,"  and,  with  the  removal  of  the  molds  or  forms,  becomes  a 


^uiitttur  lioiut  0/  Dr.  Ihtijamln  'I'ttirui/,  Muricri 


IttiAuht  it  cnandUr.  aichUtcls 


Miic.„  app  i.a  l„  ,1  w.hmI  sk.-lrlon  is  ni-illuT  ii  fnlsr  f,,r.n  ,.f  l.nil.lii.n  nor  an  in.itali...i  l.ut 

niiTcly  II  liiinil)!.-  d.-vnr  invrnl.-.!  I>y  llii-  fonfatli.rs  of  llir  Man  i.f  M...l.n.l.>  Mrnns 

tokwp  oiil  111.-  ol.-m.nls  l.j  pluslirinK  lli.ir  lulls  ..f  mils  «  illi  a  <-,.aliiin  ,.f  iniul" 


COMPOSITION   OF    STUCCO   AND   CONCRETE  13 

monolithic  mass  (known  as  plain  or  massive  concrete)  constituting 
the  wall  of  the  structure,  whose  exterior  surface  may  then  be 
scrubbed,  hammered,  picked,  stuccoed  or  treated  in  various  ways 
to  provide  a  pleasing  finish. 

The  materials  used  in  concrete  should  be  carefully  selected, 
clean  and  proportioned  in  a  manner  to  secure  as  nearly  as  pos- 
sible a  maximum  density.  A  "  dense  "  concrete  is  one  which  con- 
tains no  voids,  the  "  voids  "  being  the  air  spaces  between  the 
particles  of  cement  and  the  aggregate  (the  sand,  gravel  and 
stone  used  with  the  cement  to  give  body  to  the  concrete).  The 
belief  that  so-called  waterproofing  compounds,  as  an  ingredient 
of  concrete,  or  so-called  waterproofing  paints  applied  to  the  outer 
surface  of  the  wall,  are  necessary  to  make  concrete  proof  against 
the  percolation  of  moisture,  is  erroneous.  A  dense  concrete  is 
waterproof  and  requires  no  foreign  matter  in  its  composition  nor 
any  surface  application  to  make  it  so.  The  strongest  and  most 
dense,  and  consequently  watertight,  concrete  is  made  by  selecting 
an  aggregate  wliich  contains  the  least  voids.  The  proper  propor- 
tioning of  concrete  hinges  upon  the  amount  of  voids  in  the  sand, 
gravel  and  stone.  A  mass  of  aggregates  of  uniform  size  contains 
a  greater  percentage  of  voids  than  a  mass  of  mixed  sizes.  The 
smallest  percentage  of  voids  is  obtained  when  the  mixture  of 
aggregates  is  so  graded  that  the  voids  of  each  size  are  filled 
with  the  largest  particles  that  will  enter  them. 

The  aggregate,  as  explained  above,  is  the  material  wliich, 
used  in  conjunction  with  cement  and  water,  produces  stucco 
or  concrete.  Fine  aggregate  consists  of  sand,  crushed  stone,  or 
gravel,  that  will  pass  a  screen  having  holes  one-fourth  inch  in 
diameter,  while  coarse  aggregate  consists  of  gravel  and  broken 
stone  which  is  retained  on  sucli  a  screen.  The  maximum  size  of 
coarse  aggregate  should  not  as  a  rule  be  greater  than  will  pass 
through  a  three-inch  ring.  Hard,  clean  cinders,  free  from  coal 
and  ashes,  make  a  suitable  aggregate  for  light  loads  and  for  fire- 


14  CONCRETE   AND   STUCCO   HOUSES 

proofing.  Cinders  should  not  be  used,  however,  in  reinforced 
concrete. 

Clean  sand  or  gravel,  free  from  loam  or  other  organic  matter, 
and  clean  water,  are  essential  in  the  making  of  stucco  and  con- 
crete that  is  durable  and  free  from  discoloration.  These  pro- 
visions are  very  important.  If  any  of  the  ingredients  of  stucco 
or  concrete  contains  foreign  matter,  and  it  is  allowed  to  remain, 
it  not  only  prevents  the  cement  from  forming  a  bond  and  be- 
coming properly  set,  but  it  causes  discolorations  that  are  gen- 
erally impossible  to  remove.  As  a  safeguard,  the  sand  should 
be  thoroughly  washed  in  clean  water  before  it  is  mixed  with 
the  cement.  The  quahty  of  the  sand  used  in  the  making  of  con- 
crete is  quite  as  important  as  the  quality  of  the  cement,  yet  where 
cement  is  a  carefully  standardized  article,  meeting  requirements 
of  fineness  and  strength,  sand  is  generally  accepted  upon  the 
qualification  of  its  being  "  clean  and  sharp."  Often,  any  granular 
substance  passes  muster  as  sand,  yet  failures  in  concrete  work 
have  been  caused  by  unclean  aggregate  as  often  if  not  more 
often  than  by  poor  cement.  AU  sand  must  be  free  from  vegetable 
matter.  Loam  and  other  foreign  material  is  almost  invariably 
found  in  sand,  and  even'  in  minute  quantities  such  impurities 
will  either  prevent  the  cement  from  setting  or  retard  the  harden- 
ing of  the  concrete  for  too  long  a  period.  If  the  grains  of 
sand  are  clean,  the  cement  firmly  binds  them. 

The  author,  who  boasts  of  no  more  than  ordinary  strength,  had 
occasion  one  time  to  convince  an  unscrupulous  contractor  that  he 
was  not  using  clean  sand  by  kicking  over  a  twelve-inch  brick 
wall  three  feet  high  which  had  been  laid  for  three  days.  The 
weakness  of  the  wall  was  due  to  loam  in  the  sand  and  to  the 
failure  to  wet  the  bricks  before  laying  them.  A  good  test  of 
cleanliness  is  to  take  up  a  handful  of  the  sand  and  submerge 
it  in  a  pail  of  water.  If  the  water  shows  any  discoloration  and 
the  sand  takes  on  a  muddy  look,  it  contains  loam  or  impurities 


COMPOSITION   OF    STUCCO   AND   CONCRETE   15 

that  should  be  removed  by  a  thorough  washing.  Sand  should 
also  be  coarse.  Fine  sand  requires  much  more  cement  to  give 
the  same  strength  that  coarse  sand  would  give.  A  fine  sand, 
free  from  organic  matter,  may  be  used  if  coarse  sand  is  not 
available,  but  the  cost  of  obtaining  coarse  sand  will  generally 
be  no  more  than  for  the  added  amount  of  cement  that  fine  sand 
will  require  to  obtain  concrete  of  equal  strength.  It  will  be 
found  that  a  selection  of  coarse  sand  will  often  decrease  the  cost 
per  cubic  yard  of  the  concrete,  by  reason  of  the  smaller  quantity 
of  cement  required,  without  injury  to  the  strength  of  the  mix- 
ture. An  equivalent  of  coarse  sand  is  found  in  the  residue  of 
iron  ore  after  the  pure  iron  has  been  extracted  —  called  taelings. 
So  sharp  is  this  by-product  of  the  ore  that  a  proportion  of  one 
part  cement  to  five  parts  taelings  has  been  shown  to  be  as  strong 
as  a  one-to-three  mixture  of  cement  and  sand.  Concrete  may 
be  considered  as  a  cement-and-sand  mortar  to  which  has  been 
added  a  coarser  ingredient  such  as  gravel  or  stone.  The  quality 
of  this  material  being  equal,  the  strength  and  density  of  the  con- 
crete mass  is  dependent  on  the  quality  of  the  cement  mortar,  of 
which  the  major  part  is  sand. 

Great  care  should  be  exercised  in  the  selection  of  the  coarse 
aggregate.  It  should  be  washed  in  the  same  manner  as  sand,  and 
as  regards  the  size  of  the  pebbles  or  stones,  a  mixture  graded 
from  small  to  large  gives  the  best  result,  for  by  this  means  the 
spaces  or  voids  between  the  stones  or  pebbles  are  reduced  and 
a  more  compact  concrete  is  obtained,  requiring  less  cement  and 
sand.  A  mixture  in  which  all  the  spaces  (called  voids)  between 
the  stones  or  pebbles  are  filled  with  sand,  and  all  the  voids 
between  the  grains  of  sand  are  filled  and  surrounded  witli  cement, 
is  the  strongest  and  most  waterproof  mixture.  This  condition 
is  rarely  realized  and  as  a  safeguard  it  is  well  to  use  a  little 
more  cement  than  will  just  fill  the  voids. 

The  amount  of  each  of  the  materials  to  use  is  determined 


16  CO^XRETE    AND    STUCCO    HOUSES 

by  the  kind  of  work  to  be  done.  In  the  walls  and  floors  of  resi- 
dences a  mixture  is  generally  used  in  which  there  is  twice  as 
much  stone  as  sand,  and  twice  as  much  sand  as  cement.  The 
J  proportions  should  always  be  measured  by  volume,  with  the 
cement  as  the  unit. 

For  reinforced  concrete  a  proportion  of  one  part  cement, 
two  parts  fine  aggregate  and  four  parts  coarse  aggregate,  is 
generally  employed.  For  plain  concrete,  less  cement  may  be 
used,  depending  upon  local  conditions  and  experience.  The 
materials  should  be  thorouglily  mixed  and  be  of  a  wet  con- 
sistency, the  amount  of  water  being  contingent  upon  the  pro- 
posed use  of  the  mixture.  There  are  no  set  rules  in  proportioning 
concrete.  A  decision  may  be  made  only  after  examining  and 
testing  the  materials  to  be  used. 

A  very  wet  mixture,  where  the  concrete  nms  off  the  shovel  or 
trowel,  is  used  for  thin  walls  and  floors,  or  for  thin  castings. 
A  medium  wet  mixture,  used  for  walls  and  floors,  should  be 
of  a  jelhdike  composition  such  that  a  man  would  sink  ankle-deep 
were  he  to  step  upon  a  mass  of  it.  About  half  an  hour  after 
mixing  these  materials  the  mass  begins  to  stiffen;  in  less  than 
a  day  it  cannot  be  dented  with  the  hand;  and  within  a  month 
it  becomes  hard  as  stone,  indeed  harder  than  most  stones. 

JMaximum  density,  which  gives  to  concrete  the  greatest 
strength  and  resistance  to  water  percolation,  is  largely  acliieved 
by  a  thorough  mixing  of  the  ingredients.  Concrete  should  be 
handled  rajHdly  and  in  as  small  masses  as  is  practicable  and 
under  no  circumstances  should  it  be  disturbed  after  partial  set- 
ting, or  "  retempered,"  that  is,  mixed  with  water  after  once  the 
cement  has  begun  to  set.  Before  placing  the  concrete,  care 
should  be  taken  to  see  that  the  forms  are  substantial  and  thor- 
oughly wetted  or  oiled  to  keep  the  concrete  from  adhering  when 
they  are  removed,  and  that  the  space  to  be  occupied  by  the 
concrete  is  freed  of  all  rubbish. 


COMPOSITION    OF    STUCCO    AXD    CONCRETE   17 

"WTien  concrete  is  to  be  subjected  to  a  tensile  stress  it  is 
formed  around  iron  or  steel  rods,  and  is  then  kno^\ii  as  reinforced 
concrete.  It  is  variously  known  as  ferro-concrete,  armored- 
concrete  and  concrete-steel.  The  last  three  terms  are  objection- 
able, however,  upon  the  ground  that  they  are  both  inexact  and 
misleading.  "  Reinforced  concrete  "  pleads  guilty  only  to  the  sin 
of  omission.  As  soon  as  we  understand  that  the  reinforcement 
is  iron  or  steel,  reinforced  concrete  becomes  an  acceptable  name 
for  this  wonderful  material. 

A  treatise  upon  the  structural  design  of  reinforced  concrete 
would  probably  be  too  technical  for  the  average  reader  of  a 
book  of  this  character  and  scope,  and  therefore  no  theory  of 
design  relating  to  the  analysis  of  beams,  columns,  stresses  and 
strains  Avill  be  attempted.  It  is  sufficient  to  say  that  calculations 
should  be  made  by  an  experienced  and  qualified  engineer,  to 
determine  the  sizes  and  manner  of  distribution  of  the  steel  rein- 
forcement, as  well  as  the  spacing  of  beams,  girders  and  columns, 
and  to  specify  all  necessary  structural  requirements  for  the  insur- 
ance of  stability,  durability  and  the  economic  designing  and 
handling  of  the  materials  emploj'cd. 

The  successful  execution  of  any  work  in  which  the  materials 
described  are  employed  requires  the  best  of  labor  and  material. 
This  does  not  mean  that  construction  in  stucco  and  concrete  is 
necessarily  expensive.  Some  or  all  of  the  necessary  ingredients 
may  be  found  on  or  near  the  site  of  the  structure  to  be  erected, 
or  they  may  be  purchased  in  nearby  markets  for  a  reasonable 
sum.  Labor  too  may  be  cheaper  and  more  readily  obtained  in 
one  locality  than  in  another,  although  the  scarcity  of  good  artisans 
in  these  times  is  an  undisjjuted  fact  and  is  one  of  the  direct  causes 
of  the  high  cost  of  building  and  of  the  poor  workmanship  we 
are  often  obliged  to  accept. 

We  are  in  greater  need  of  good  artisans  than  the  product  of 
any  other  curriculum.     Of  what  use  are  beautiful  drawings  and 


18  COXCRETE    AXD    STUCCO    HOUSES 

careful!}'  prepared  specifications  and  minute  and  accurate  in- 
structions, if  no  artisans  with  sufficient  skill  and  understanding 
can  be  found  to  execute  the  work  in  accordance  with  these  pro- 
visions? Economic  and  artistic  building  in  America  is  suffering 
to-day  from  a  scarcity  of  teachers  who  can  teach,  from  a  paucity 
of  trade  schools  and  from  the  baneful  influence  of  the  current 
methods  employed  in  trade  unionism.  The  palatial  housing  of 
students  and  professors,  which  is  now  the  fashion,  is  accomplished 
at  the  expense  of  learning.  Were  some  of  the  millions  of  dollars 
with  which  our  schools  and  colleges  are  ezidowed,  and  at  once 
translated  into  stone  monuments,  used  to  attract,  by  means  of 
adequate  salaries,  to  their  chairs  of  learning,  men  of  special 
talent  for  implanting  useful  knowledge  in  the  minds  of  the 
young,  the  next  generation  would  have  better  heads  and  hands 
to  carry  out  the  tasks  that  will  confront  them.  A  man  may  be 
learned  and  yet  unable  to  implant  knowledge  in  the  mind  of 
another.  A  good  teacher,  like  a  good  sponge,  should  be  capable 
of  absorbing  and  squeezing  out  wth  equal  readiness.  It  is  pre- 
posterous to  assume  that  a  man  of  such  talents  will  accept  the 
beggarly  wage  customarily  offered  to  him. 

We  need  additional  trade  schools  far  more  than  additional 
libraries,  with  experienced  teachers  for  the  youth  whose  condi- 
tion in  life  is  such  that  his  time  and  his  money  are  limited.  The 
"  unions  "  often  restrict  the  opportunities  of  a  bright,  industrious 
boy  in  the  learning  of  a  trade  and  throw  serious  obstacles  in  the 
way  of  his  advancement.  He  is  often  denied  the  right  and 
privilege  to  learn  a  certain  trade  because  the  nimiber  of  appren- 
tices is  arbitrarily  limited,  thus  creating  an  artificial  value  by  re- 
stricting the  supph'.  Even  if  he  is  lucky  enough  to  be  apprenticed 
or  can  attend  a  trade  school,  and  finally  becomes  a  journeyman, 
the  faithful,  hard-working  and  ambitious  mechanic  is  forbidden 
to  use  his  hands  as  fast  as  he  might,  and  as  long  as  he  would,  and 
by  printed  rule  compelled  to  work  side  bj^  side  with  his  lazy  and 


>«^"W.»«^ 


p 


COMPOSITION   OF    STUCCO   AND   CONCRETE  19 

incompetent  brother  at  the  same  wage.  Is  it  any  wonder  that 
under  these  stifling  and  depressing  conditions  a  man  fails  to 
develop  his  talents  to  the  full? 

In  general,  skilled  artisans  are  necessary  to  obtain  thorough 
and  lasting  results,  as  well  as  an  artistic  rendering  in  stucco 
and  concrete.  Unskilled  labor  is  used,  of  course,  in  the  deliver}', 
handling  and  mixing  of  the  various  materials  employed,  but  these 
worthies  must  always  be  under  the  watchful  eyes  of  skilled 
mechanics  and  foremen  if  a  creditable  piece  of  work  is  to  be 
achieved. 


Stucco  as  an   Outside   Wall  Covering 


THE  history  of  architecture  shows  us  very  clearly  that  the 
housing  of  man  has  with  few  exceptions  been  accomphshed 
with  the  materials  nearest  to  hand.  Occasionally  a  con- 
quering nation  has  acquired  in  part  the  fashions  of  the  conquered 
and  has  huilded  upon  the  spoils  of  war.  Again,  in  the  discovery 
and  colonization  of  new  lands,  the  settlers  have  imported  the 
products  of  the  mother  country  with  which  they  were  familiar. 
But  with  the  wider  circulation  of  knowledge  since  the  advent  of 
steam  power,  the  printing  press,  the  photographic  camera  and 
the  harnessing  of  electricity,  the  limitations  that  generally  con- 
fined our  ancestors  to  the  selection  of  home-made  building  mate- 
rial have  been  largely  removed,  and  the  desire  of  the  reader  and 
the  globe-trotter  to  adapt  such  ideas  as  have  appealed  to  him 
in  his  books  and  travels,  has  been  gratified  by  the  means  given 
him  through  the  rapid  advance  of  civilization,  while  his  less  ac- 
tive neighbor  has  contented  himself  with  a  slavish  or  modified 
copy  of  such  novelties  as  have  cropped  up  about  him.  This 
process  of  architectural  evolution  is  most  apparent  in  the  modern 
structures  to  be  found  in  America,  and  the  heterogeneous  types 
erected  here  in  the  last  twenty-five  years  are  characteristic  of  the 
conglomerate  race  that  forms  its  population  and  of  the  avidity 
with  which  the  novel  inventions  of  recent  years  have  been  seized 
and  employed  in  the  construction  of  the  American  home. 

The  choice,  therefore,  of  the  nearest  available  material  is  no 
longer  a  specified  requirement  because  of  that  qualification.  Com- 
mon sense  should  dictate  a  durable  form  of  construction,  and 
good  taste  will  suggest  an  outward  appearance  that  will  be  in 
harmony  with  the  character  of  the  land.    Among  the  durable 


An  occasional  crack,  if  it  is  not  loo  hirm-  or  iliic  to  a  structural  ilcfcci,  is  not  a 
serious  hlcniisii*" 


'III  fuct  a  llaulrss  oiu'-loiiril  »all  is  apt  to  l>i'  painfully  inoiiotoiioiis  ami  iniisl  Ix 
partly  covrrfil  with  vin'-s  Ix'forc  it  can  lay  claim  to  any  hcaiity 


/luwie  at  Heuickley  Htignts,  I'a. 


n  it  Abboil,  arcniucls 


**It  is  not  necessjiry  for  the  surface  of  stucco  to  Im'  cvcu  in  tone,  provided  the  variation  in 
color  is  agreeable  and  n<it  caus^Hl  hy  the  use  of  unclean  n.att  rial" 


STUCCO  AS  AN  OUTSIDE  WALL  COVERING  21 

materials  available  for  building  purposes  are  stone,  brick,  con- 
crete and  various  substantial  products  such  as  terra  cotta  tile 
and  steel,  that  require  a  veneer  of  masonry,  concrete  or  stucco. 
Fascinating  as  the  old  wooden  houses  of  New  England  are,  they 
are  not  in  sympathy  with  the  present-day  civihzation.  To  ex- 
pend such  thought  and  care,  energy  and  money,  upon  a  structure 
that  begins  to  deteriorate  the  day  it  is  begun,  that  involves  con- 
tinual care  and  expense  to  retard  its  decay,  and  that  may  vanish 
over  night  in  smoke  and  flame;  to  build  a  temporary  structure 
in  wliich  posterity  has  no  interest,  when  a  durable  and  lasting 
monument  of  equal  beauty  may  as  readily  be  had,  would  indicate 
that  sentiment  had  overcome  good  judgment.  Wooden  buildings 
cannot  keep  pace  with  the  march  of  progress,  and  it  indicates  no 
lack  of  respect  for  these  one-time  giants  of  Colonial  architecture 
to  suggest  that  their  propagation  cease. 

The  day  of  wood  for  the  exterior  covering  of  an  all-year- 
round  house  has  gone  by,  and  stucco  has  largely  taken  its  place. 
Curiously  enough,  stucco  lends  itself  with  extraordinary  readi- 
ness to  almost  any  architectural  design  that  may  be  suited  to  the 
particular  environment.  That  the  lay  of  the  land,  and  the  needs 
and  characteristics  of  the  inhabitants  determine  the  style  of  archi- 
tecture to  be  employed  is  an  undisputed  fact,  but  it  is  no  exag- 
geration to  say  that  there  are  few  if  any  instances  in  the  suburban 
and  country  communities  of  America,  where  sand  and  gravel 
prevail,  that  stucco  and  concrete  cannot  be  fittingly  employed 
to  express  the  true  spirit  of  the  neighborhood. 

While  a  frame  building  is  to  be  condemned  upon  the  ground 
that  it  is  at  best  a  flimsy  and  transitory  structure,  a  man  should 
not  cut  off  his  nose  to  spite  his  face.  Tlie  cry  of  "  fake " 
and  "  sham  "  is  periodically  raised  by  the  starving  purist  and  the 
millionaire  iconoclast  at  this  form  of  construction.  As  a  matter 
of  fact,  stucco  applied  to  a  wood  skeleton  is  neither  a  false  form 
of  building  nor  an  imitation,  but  merely  a  humble  device  in- 


22 


CO^XRETE   AND    STUCCO   HOUSES 


vented  by  the  forefathers  of  the  JNIan  of  Moderate  Means,  to 
keep  out  the  "  elements  "  by  plastering  their  huts  of  reeds  and 


First  floor  plan,  villa  of  Mrs.  Robert  Stafford,  Lloyd's  Neck,  Huntington,  L.  I. 
Lionel  Moses  11,  architect 

rough-hewn  timbers  with  a  coating  of  mud.    Later  it  was  used 
to  cover  masonrj'^  that  presented  an  unsightly  surface. 

Until  a  more  durable  building  material  is  available  at  the 


yilltt  of  Mrs.  liufnrt  Sduroril.  lA'iy.r <   \  :      i  lAotnl  M>ws.  II.  architect 

"'I'hc  .slui-cur<i  fiviiiir  liiiiix-  i-  ;i  pnpiihir  :iiiil  (|uilr  pn-\  iilctil  furiii  i»|'  cimst  nictiuii " 


uff5 


'II  is  clicainr  timii  solid  ciiikti'Ii'  i.r  iniisdiiry  r..ii.strii<-li.pn.  ami  a  stiirc.  (-..vitIiih  is  ini.n> 
iliiniMi-  and  li-ss  cdsIIv  Io  iiiaintaiii  lli.iii  a  ci.vrrinj;  nf  sliiiinlis  iir  rlapl.iianls" 


"Dame  Nature  took  a  hand  ami  ...  a  sparkling  ami  mottled  vcllon.  white  and 

gray  etfccl  has  been  obtained  that  never  would  have  lieen  po.vsible  in  a 

one-tone  mi.vtiire  or  with  paint  alone" 


STUCCO   AS   AN   OUTSIDE   WALL   COVERING   23 

same  cost,  we  must  reconcile  ourselves  to  the  fact  that  as  the 
average  American  is  here  to-day  and  there  to-morrow,  he  will  not 
invest  more  than  he  is  compelled  to  for  things  whose  sole  virtue 


^fe 


I J  Pi     t.r 


Second  floor  plan,  villa  of  Mrs.  Rob<Tt  Staffonl,  Lloyd's  Neck,  IIuntiiigtoD,  L.  I. 
LioDvl  Mose3  II,  urchitcct. 

is  durability  and  permanency.  It  is  an  unfortunate  situation, 
but  tiie  fact  cannot  be  dodged.  The  cost  of  wood,  however,  is 
steadily  increasing,  and  in  view  of  the  wretched  quality  now 
being  served  out  at  a  price  that  ten  years  ago  would  buy  the  best. 


24  CONCRETE    AND    STUCCO    HOUSES 

many  minds  have  turned  in  search  of  new  and  better  material 
to  take  its  jjlace  at  the  same  price.  Unless  all  signs  fail,  IMother 
Necessity  will  soon  receive  a  visit  from  the  Stork,  with  a  timely 
bundle  of  cement  products  at  popular  prices. 

The  poor  quality  and  costliness  of  wood,  and  its  steady  decay, 
have  not  been  the  only  factors  in  spurring  men  on  to  search  for 
a  better  structural  material.  The  horrors  and  losses  due  to  fire 
have  shocked  and  roused  them  into  activity,  and  the  promised 
advent  of  an  unburnable  house  at  moderate  cost  is  cause  for 
sincere  rejoicing.  The  fact  that  his  house  will  stay  put  for  cen- 
turies does  not  interest  the  American  as  keenly  as  does  the  as- 
surance that  it  will  not  disappear  over  night  with  all  his  treasures, 
animate  and  inanimate.  Incidentallj'  he  is  pleased  to  learn  that 
the  cost  of  maintenance  and  insurance  will  be  reduced  to  a 
minimum. 

As  for  the  style  of  architecture  that  will  prevail,  only  time 
will  decide.  Stucco  and  concrete  adapt  themselves  to  any  form 
of  plastic  design,  and  manufactured  stone  to  articulated  design, 
and  each  lends  itself  readily  to  modifications  of  almost  every  style 
that  could  be  conceived  as  suitable  in  respect  to  our  national  in- 
heritance. We  are  mainly  a  mixture  of  the  Anglo-Saxon,  Ger- 
manic, Gallic  and  Romanic  races,  and  our  houses  may  properly 
reflect  a  suggestion  of  English,  German,  French  and  Italian 
styles  past  and  present,  all  of  which  are  readily  expressed  in 
terms  of  stucco,  concrete  and  manufactured  stone. 

Stucco  was  used  in  this  country  extensively  in  Colonial  days, 
chiefly  by  the  Dutch  settlers  in  New  York  and  the  Germans 
in  Pennsylvania.  It  generally  provided  a  covering  for  rubble 
walls,  the  stone  laid  in  what  was  little  better  than  clay  mud. 
Cement  at  that  time  Avas  unknown,  and  lime  an  expensive  im- 
ported material.  These  crudely  built  walls  soon  began  to  de- 
teriorate from  rain  and  frost,  and  to  protect  them  an  applica- 
tion of  stucco  was  made,  composed  of  sand  and  shell  lime.    This 


STUCCO   AS   AN   OUTSIDE   WALL   COVERING  25 

mixture  did  not  resist  the  repeated  attacks  of  water  and  cold 
any  too  well  and  therefore  was  itself  partially  protected  by 
wide  overhanging  eaves,  giving  birth  to  the  well-known  "  Ger- 
nmntoA\Ti  hood  "  and  the  projecting  roof  lines  of  the  Dutch 
Colonial  stj^le. 

Stucco  has  a  great  deal  to  recommend  it  in  house  construc- 
tion, but  it  has  also  some  conspicuous  drawbacks.  Stucco  is  much 
like  the  little  girl  who,  "  when  she  was  good  she  was  very,  very 
good,  but  when  she  was  bad  she  was  horrid."  When  properly 
made  and  ajiplied  it  is  durable,  inexpensive  to  maintain,  a  warm 
covering  in  winter  and  a  cool  one  in  summer,  x)leasing  to  the 
ej'e  and  susceptible  of  an  unlimited  nimiber  of  variations  in  tex- 
ture and  color.  When  badly  or  carelessly  made  and  applied,  no 
material  could  be  worse,  for  if  it  does  not  fall  off  entirely  it  will 
peel  off  in  sections,  bulge,  crack,  absorb  water,  spot,  streak  and 
take  on  either  a  dull  cheerless  gray  or  a  medley  of  tints,  as  the 
ill-chosen  mixture  or  poor  workmanship  may  determine.  Its 
so-called  defects  are  usually  traced  to  the  ignorance  or  careless- 
ness of  the  men  who  sj)ecify  and  handle  it,  if  not  to  a  deliberate 
swindle. 

From  an  artistic  standpoint,  perfect  uniformity  of  shade  in 
stucco  is  not  essential  or  even  desirable.  A  ceiiain  amount  of 
blending  variation  in  tone  is  pleasing  to  the  ej'c,  while  a  per- 
fectly even  color  lacks  character.  Of  course  an  abrupt  line  of 
demarcation  such  as  would  be  ])roducc(l  by  a  radical  change  in 
the  mixture,  or  in  the  difference  in  workniansliip  of  one  man 
and  another,  or  from  a  change  in  the  weather  during  the  opera- 
tion, is  not  always  desired.  But  one  thing  should  not  be  lost 
sight  of:  a  conii)lcted  stucco  house  looks  its  worst  at  the  mo- 
ment of  completion.  It  continues  to  improve  in  appearance  with 
age. 

If  stucco  of  a  decided  color  is  desired,  only  mineral  colors 
should  be  employed,  and  these  had  better  be  used  sparingly  and 


26  CONCRETE   AXD    STUCCO    HOUSES 

limited  to  carbon  black,  ochre  and  red  oxides  of  iron  and  their 
combinations.  It  should  be  borne  in  mind  that  coloring  matter 
reduces  the  strength  of  the  stucco.  Very  pleasing  shades  may- 
be obtained,  however,  without  the  use  of  pigments ;  such,  for  in- 
stance, as  grayish  wliite,  pure  white  and  light  buff.  The  first  is 
secured  by  mixing  crushed  white  quartz  with  ordinary  gray 
cement,  the  second  by  marble  dust  with  white  cement,  and  the 
third  by  yellow  sand  or  gravel  with  white  cement.  If  pigments 
are  used  they  should  be  mixed  dry  with  the  sand  or  gravel  and 
then  with  the  cement.  A  uniform  mixture  cannot  be  obtained 
if  any  of  the  ingredients  are  wet.  ^Mixing  in  paste  form  is  sure 
to  distribute  the  color  unevenly,  and  the  trowel  striking  a  lump 
of  color  will  produce  a  spot  or  streak.  By  mixing  the  ingredi- 
ents dry,  a  sufficient  amount  for  the  entire  operation  may  be 
obtained  and  kept  until  needed,  pure  water  being  added  to  such 
quantities  as  may  be  immediately  required.  Tliis  method  pre- 
vents the  unevenness  m  color  that  generally  occurs  when 
"  batclies  "  are  mixed  at  different  times.  Smooth  surfaces  that 
are  "  floated  "  or  troweled  rarely  show  a  perfectly  even  color, 
no  matter  how  accurately  the  ingredients  are  proportioned  nor 
how  carefully  they  are  mixed.  No  two  men  trowel  alike,  nor 
can  one  man  continually  presence  the  same  degree  of  pressure; 
consequentlj'  different  surface  textures  occur  from  the  varying 
amounts  of  cement  or  fine  material  that  come  to  the  surface, 
producing  a  difference  in  shade  or  color.  Freezing  will  also 
change  the  color  of  stucco,  as  will  sunlight,  a  dry  wind,  or  cloudy 
and  rainy  weather.  A  moist,  cloudj'  day  is  the  best  for  a  good 
stucco  finish,  and  where  it  is  exposed  to  sun  or  wind  the  stucco 
should  be  covered  with  damp  cloths  hung  to  protect  it,  and  in- 
variably the  whole  of  one  unit  of  space  should  be  completed  in 
the  operation. 

Lime  stucco  has  been  used  extensively  in  the  past,  both  for 
protection  and  ornamentation.    It  reached  a  high  state  of  devel- 


m 

1 

*W-.M      1  «  IT» 

STUCCO   AS   AX   OUTSIDE   WALL   COVERIXG   27 

opment  with  the  Persians,  Greeks  and  Romans,  and  later  with 
the  JMoors.  On  this  continent  we  find  mud  stucco  in  the  adohe 
huts  of  JNIexico,  lime  stucco  in  the  Mission  houses  of  California, 
coral  stucco  in  Florida  and  Bermuda,  and  a  stuccoed  rubble 
stone  in  Xew  York  and  Pennsylvania.  But  until  the  advent 
of  Portland  cement,  stucco  was  unable  to  withstand  the  ravages 
of  time  except  in  countries  where  the  climate  is  warm  and  dry. 
Cement  stucco  grows  harder  with  age  and  is  not  affected  by  the 
weather  conditions  that  prevail  in  the  temperate  zone,  after  once 
it  has  hardened.  In  a  climate  such  as  we  have  above  I\Iason  and 
Dixon's  hne  the  admixture  of  ordinary  lime  in  stucco  is  not 
advisable.  It  cheapens  the  first  coat  and  makes  it  flow  more 
easily  and  in  quicker  time  from  the  mason's  trowel,  and  for  these 
reasons  is  often  used  in  place  of  an  adequate  proportion  of 
cement.  It  is  difficult  to  prepare  and  to  mix  thoroughly  the  lime 
paste  with  the  cement  and  sand,  and  particles  of  imslaked  lime 
are  apt  to  enter  the  mixture  to  its  detriment.  Hydrated  lime  — 
a  lump  lime  slaked  by  a  mechanical  process,  in  which  the  water 
is  driven  off,  leaving  an  impalpable  powder  —  overcomes  this 
objection,  but  as  hydrated  hme  is  practically  as  expensive  as 
Portland  cement,  its  use  serves  little  purpose  other  than  to 
lighten  the  color  of  the  stucco  and  to  "  fatten  "  the  mixture  and 
so  make  it  work  more  easily  under  the  float. 

Stucco  should  never  be  applied  in  freezing  weather.  If  the 
water  freezes  before  the  cement  has  set,  the  stucco  will  not  harden. 
Nor  should  stucco  ever  be  disturbed  before  the  cement  has  set, 
otherwise  it  will  not  adhere  to  the  surface  to  which  it  is  applied. 
While  a  frame  building  covered  with  stucco  is  in  no  sense  fire- 
proof, such  a  covering  does  act  as  a  fire  retard.  Stuccoing 
shoidd  always  be  started  at  the  top  of  the  building  and  the  work 
carried  downward  to  some  projecting  member  or  recess.  If  it 
is  impossible  to  complete  an  entire  wall  during  one  operation, 
the  work  should  be  halted  at  some  division  line,  such  as  a  band, 


28  CONCRETE   AND    STUCCO    HOUSES 

>vindow  or  door.  If  three  coats  are  applied,  the  surface  of  the 
first  and  second  coats  sliould  be  deeplj'^  scratched  while  they  are 
wet,  and  three  coats  are  desirable  if  the  finish  is  to  be  smooth. 
For  a  rough  coat  and  pebble-dash  finish,  two  coats  will  suffice, 
but  the  total  thickness  of  the  stucco  should  not  be  less  than  one 
inch. 

A  smooth  finish  is  secured  by  bringing  the  final  coat  to  an 
even  surface  with  a  wood  float;  under  no  circumstances  should 
a  steel  trowel  be  used  for  this  purpose.  Rough-cast  and  pebble- 
dash  finishes  are  obtained  by  applying  gravel  or  pebbles,  mixed 
with  cement  and  water,  dashed  on  with  a  jjaddle  or  whisk-broom 
after  wetting  down  the  under  surface.  This  gives  a  very  pleas- 
ing texture  and  a  variation  in  tones  that  overcomes  the  monotony 
of  a  perfectly  smooth  and  uniform  surface. 

One  of  the  most  interesting  and  attractive  of  the  various  sur- 
face treatments  employed  by  the  author  is  what  is  termed  the 
"  dry  dash."  The  "  scratch  "  coat  is  applied  in  the  usual  manner 
and  while  still  wet,  aggregates,  selected  for  their  size  and  color, 
are  dashed  upon  and  partly  embedded  in  the  soft  background. 

The  "  personal  equation  "  cuts  a  large  figure  in  stucco  work. 
Few  men  in  tliis  country  have  either  the  knowledge  or  the 
"  knack  "  of  applying  stucco  in  a  manner  that  wiU  be  both  dur- 
able and  pleasing  in  appearance.  The  obstinate  adherence  of 
the  average  workman  to  his  own  notions,  and  the  opinion  he 
entertains  that  the  specification  prescribed  by  the  architect  is  of 
no  great  importance,  operates  strongly  against  one's  best  en- 
deavor. The  author  has  made  it  a  rule  to  impress  upon  the 
owner  the  importance  of  employing  the  most  skillful  men  who 
appreciate  the  importance  of  a  strict  observance  of  the  precepts 
respecting  the  method  and  mixture  required  to  produce  the  de- 
sired eff'ect.  It  should  be  borne  in  mind  that  stucco  is  subject 
to  the  action  of  the  weather,  including  heat,  cold,  moisture  and 
aridity,  to  shrinkage,  settlement  and  all  the  ills  that  the  exterior 


■  Wondni  luiiMin^'s  caniiot  kcrp  p;nr  willi  tlic  ni;inli  of  progress,  and  it  iit(rK'aU'.s 
11(1  lack  »>f  rt'spci't  for  thrs<-  (dK'-tiiiii'  ^'iants  of  Colonial  an-liitt'c- 
liiri-  to  su^grsl  that  tlirir  ]>ro)>agation  vvusv" 


Tico  rltir*.  rrxtdrner  af  It.  h'..  Huntin\;Um.  A'w  .  '-<■«  Uot'Ux  Hunch,  t  at. 


Mbr,.n  Hum  ,1-  h'lt'iir  l,'rii/,  uTyhUiita 


"Stiirt  II  antl  <-oii(Trtr  a<lapt  tlirnisrlvrs  t4i  any  pla.stic  form  of  iloi^ii  aiul  li'iul  tlu'iu- 

M-I\rs  n-adilv  to  niiHlifirations  tif  almost  rvcry  style  that  4-ouI(l  In-  coni-fivrtl 

a>  in  any  roprtt  >nit4*<l  In  (»ur  National  inhi-rilam  <■" 


Residence  of  LouU  JJijonnc,  t'sg..  .\€w  ISrighion.  .S.  /. 


Dtiano  A  Aiancn,  arcnuccts 


'A  completed  stucco  house  looks  its  worst  at  the  nioinent  fif  completion.     It  con- 
tinues to  improve  in  appearanee  witli  a^e,  and  should  never  fail  lo 
have  its  complement  of  vines" 


STUCCO   AS   AN   OUTSIDE   WALL   COVERING   29 

walls  of  a  building  are  heir  to.  Many  stucco  houses  present  a 
sorry  appearance  by  reason  of  ignorance  or  neglect  on  the  part 
of  tlie  owner,  architect  or  contractor.  The  most  careful  inspec- 
tion and  supervision  of  the  architect  avail  httle  if  the  "  lowest 
bidder  "  attempts  to  skimp  the  work  by  the  emplojTnent  of  im- 
skilled  masons  and  poor  material.  The  architect  can  cause  a 
halt  in  the  work,  but  this  often  results  in  an  endless  dispute, 
and  as  time  is  often  a  factor  and  a  lawsuit  always  a  nightmare, 
the  best  of  a  bad  situation  is  frequently  accepted. 

From  this  reference  to  the  contractor  it  must  not  be  assumed 
that  he  is,  as  a  class,  dishonest  and  tricky.  The  author  enjoys  the 
acquaintance  of  many  builders  who  are  not  only  honest  and 
capable  but  who  take  such  pride  in  their  work  that  they  will  not 
tolerate  any  deviation  from  first-class  building  methods.  The 
honest  and  capable  contractor  labors,  however,  under  a  great 
disadvantage  when  subjected  to  the  pernicious  custom  of  award- 
ing the  work  to  the  "  lowest  bidder."  The  owner's  unquench- 
able thirst  for  the  "  lowest  bid  "  invites  reckless  estimating  and 
if  the  successful  bidder  finds  later  that  he  has  figured  the  cost 
too  low,  the  temptation  is  great  to  make  good  Iiis  loss  by  skimping 
the  work. 

The  fine  hair-cracks  that  frequently  appear  upon  the  finished 
surfaces  of  stucco,  called  crazing,  are  generally  due  to  the  too 
rapid  evaporation  of  the  water,  before  the  cement  has  had  time 
to  set.  These  cracks  may  be  largely  avoided  by  stuccoing  on  a 
damp,  cloudy  day,  when  there  is  little  or  no  wind,  or  by  protect- 
ing the  stucco  from  sunshine  and  breeze  by  screens  or  other 
device.  An  occasional  crack,  if  it  is  not  too  large  or  due  to  a 
structural  defect,  is  not  a  serious  blemish.  In  fact  a  flawless 
one-toned  wall  is  apt  to  be  painfully  monotonous  and  must  be 
partly  covered  with  vines  before  it  can  lay  claim  to  any  beauty. 

Vines  arc  as  essential  a  covering  to  outside  walls  of  masonry 
and  stucco  as  draperies  and  pictures  arc  to  the  inside  plastered 


80  CONCRETE    AND    STUCCO    HOUSES 

walls  of  the  room.  They  relieve  the  monotony  of  an  expanse 
of  wall  and  soften  its  rigid  lines.  Contrary  to  the  generally 
accepted  idea  that  vines  induce  dampness  in  the  walls  to  which 
they  chng,  the  foliage  acts  as  a  protection,  shedding  the  water 
and  breaking  the  force  of  a  driving  storm.  A  stucco  wall,  or 
a  surface  of  brick  or  stone  for  that  matter,  rarely  becomes  a 
part  of  the  landscape  until  it  receives  a  dress  of  creeping  and 
clinging  foliage.  It  is  a  lamentable  fact  that  many  a  fine  house 
remains  for  years  in  statu  quo,  cold  and  forbidding,  a  monu- 
ment to  the  owner's  ignorance  or  laziness  with  respect  to  this 
finishing  touch.  Still  more  often,  a  wall  poor  in  color  or  tex- 
ture stands  for  years  a  source  of  woe  to  the  owner,  and  a  target 
of  criticism  for  the  passer-by,  whereas  a  few  vines  creejiing  over 
its  unsightly  face  would  probably  transform  those  very  defects 
into  a  general  mass  of  beauty. 

The  decorative  possibihties  of  stucco  are  almost  unlimited. 
It  may  be  used  as  a  unit  covering  tinted  in  various  colors;  com- 
bined with  "  half-timbers,"  it  provides  a  striking  contrast  to  these 
wooden  members  in  color  and  texture;  and  when  used  in  con- 
nection with  wire-cut  brick  an  infinite  variety  of  schemes  are 
made  possible,  each  material  acting  as  a  foil  to  the  other.  The 
parge  work  of  England  is  an  example  of  modeled  stucco  orna- 
mentation that  might  readily  be  adapted  to  American  needs,  and 
Italian  sgraffito  could  be  used  to  advantage  in  relieving  the 
monotony  of  a  single-toned  surface.  Stenciling  with  colored 
cement  washes  is  an  interesting  way  of  treating  a  smooth  stucco 
surface,  but  this  method  of  decoration  is  more  usually  confined 
to  porches,  loggias  and  jjortions  protected  from  the  action  of  the 
weather,  for  the  range  of  coloring  matter  includes  none  of  any 
great  permanence  when  exposed  to  the  elements.  As  to  the  use 
of  color,  it  may  be  said  that  owing  to  the  lack  of  experience  or 
courage  on  the  part  of  the  architect,  or  due  to  the  veto  of  the 
owner,  very  few  examples  are  to  be  seen  that  excite  favorable 


Ursltlrncf  of  l.mn.  I'u-jH'J'-.  A--^.,  A 


^l   .UxiTUh,  ar,.htUiU 


**Lnttirr-work  srrvrs  tho  purpose  of  a  support  for  viiirs.  ami  until  tlirst*  lH<<-unu>  sluril\ 
iu  growth.  alTonls  an  olTrrtiw  and  iui-xpcnsivf  fi>rni  of  tUtoralion" 


STUCCO   AS  AN   OUTSIDE   WALL   COVERING   31 

mention.  When  the  work  is  exposed,  the  mistake  is  invariably 
made  of  selecting  such  shades  and  tones  as  are  effective  at  the 
moment,  forgetful  that  the  ravages  of  time,  the  action  of  the 
sun,  wind  and  water  conspire  to  bleach,  and  the  dust  to  blacken, 
the  chaste  tones  so  fondly  conceived.  JNIore  daring  is  required 
of  the  architect  and  more  confidence  of  the  owner.  Time  should 
be  discounted,  even  at  the  expense  of  a  year's  nervousness  over 
a  glaring  chromatic  display.  "  Painfully  new  "  is  an  expression 
that  applies  to  buildings  as  well  as  to  footwear.  As  it  takes  a 
few  days'  usage  to  remove  the  distracting  qualities  of  a  new  pair 
of  boots,  so  the  passage  of  a  year  or  two  is  generally  necessary 
before  a  newly  built  house  blends  happily  with  the  surrounding 
landscape. 

It  is  not  necessary  for  the  finished  surface  of  concrete  or  stucco 
to  be  spotless  and  even  in  tone,  provided  the  variation  in  color 
is  agreeable  and  not  caused  by  the  use  of  unclean  material.  The 
softening  tones  which  age  will  give  to  the  stucco  improve  its  ap- 
pearance, and  consequently  there  are  many  instances  where  an 
unevenness  in  color  of  the  stucco  upon  the  completion  of  the  work 
need  occasion  no  quarrel  with  the  contractor.  The  conception 
of  the  architect  should  determine  whether  or  not  the  appearance 
is  such  as  will  contribute  to  or  detract  from  the  completed  pic- 
ture a  few  years  hence. 


Stucco  on    Wood  Frame 


IN  the  environs  of  most  of  our  eastern  cities  the  usual  mode 
of  construction  employed  in  suburban  and  country  houses  is 
a  wood  frame  composed  of  upright  and  horizontal  members 
tied  together  and  braced,  the  exterior  walls  being  then  covered 
Avith  shingles  or  clapboards,  and  the  interior  wall  surfaces  plas- 


»OBlt   eoenux. 


First  floor  plan,  residence  of  Gage  E.  Tarbell,  Esq.,  Garden  City,  L.  I. 
Oswald  C.  Bering,  architect 

tered.  A  house  of  this  character  is  not  well  insulated  against 
heat  and  cold  and  is  rarely  weather-tight.  It  is  highly  inflam- 
mable and  subject  to  more  or  less  rapid  deterioration,  depending 
upon  the  quality  of  the  labor  and  material  emjiloyed  and  the 
prevalent  climatic  conditions.  Of  course,  all  shingle  and  clap- 
board houses  do  not  come  under  this  category.  The  A\Titer  has 
lived  in  frame  houses  that  were  built  over  a  century  ago,  but 


STUCCO   ON   WOOD   FRA^IE 


33 


that  was  a  time  when  they  builded  well  and  employed  material 
and  methods  of  construction  the  cost  of  which  to-day  would  be 
proliibitive.  Heavy  beams  of  oak  and  pine,  mortised  with  tusk 
and  tenon,  are  to-day  supplanted  by  slender  spruce  and  hemlock 
joists  notched  and  spiked.  With  the  employment  of  good 
methods  of  framing,  however,  and  the  space  between  the  studs 
of  the  outside  walls  "  back-plastered  "  before  lathing  and  plaster- 


Second  floor  plan,  residence  of  Gape  E.  Tarbcll,  Esq.,  Garden  City,  L.  I. 
Oswald  C.  llering,  architect 

ing  the  inside  surfaces,  and  the  outside  covered  with  ship-lap 
sheathing,  then  with  heavy  building  ])aper,  and  finally  with  good, 
seasoned  shingles  or  clapboards,  a  fairly  dural)lc  house  may  be 
built;  and  if  the  shingles  are  left  to  acquire  their  color  by  the 
action  of  the  weather  the  "  up-kecp  "  is  reduced  to  a  minimum. 
For  a  wood  exterior,  the  life  of  a  "  weathered  "  shingle  is  ap- 
proximately ten  years  on  the  roof  and  twenty  on  the  wall.  If 
clapboards  are  used  for  an  outside  covering  of  the  frame  skele- 
ton, the  initial  cost  is  generally  raised  by  the  necessity  of  paint- 


34  CONCRETE   AND    STUCCO   HOUSES 

ing  these  boards,  and  the  cost  of  maintenance  is  similarly  raised 
by  the  requirement  of  additional  coats  of  paint  every  three  or 
four  years.  Timber,  too,  is  becoming  scarcer  and  consequently 
dearer,  and  lumber  that  is  "  clear  "  and  free  from  defects  is  in 
many  instances  so  rare  and  costly  as  to  proliibit  its  use  in  houses 
of  moderate  cost. 

Excepting  in  certain  localities  and  under  certain  conditions, 
concrete  and  stucco  are,  as  yet,  more  expensive  forms  of  con- 
struction and  finish  than  wood,  but  the  margin  of  difference  is 
slowly  but  surely  decreasing,  and  there  seems  to  be  no  doubt 
that  within  a  few  years  wood  for  structural  members,  and  for 
an  exterior  covering  of  walls,  such  as  shingles  and  clapboards, 
will  be  generally  abandoned  in  favor  of  the  more  durable  mate- 
rials with  which  these  chapters  treat.  An  intermediate  stage  of 
this  slow  evolution,  where  cost  is  a  factor  but  not  so  great  a  one 
as  to  require  the  use  of  either  sliingles  or  clapboards  for  an  ex- 
terior covering,  is  the  "  stuccoed  frame  "  house  —  the  house  con- 
structed of  wood,  but  given  an  outside  covering  of  stucco.  Houses 
of  this  character  have  all  the  appearance  of  concrete  and  are  often 
mistaken  for  this  construction,  as  well  as  fraudulently  advertised 
as  such.  The  stuccoed  frame  house,  nevertheless,  is  a  popular 
and  quite  prevalent  form  of  construction.  It  is  cheaper  than 
solid  concrete  or  masonry  construction,  and  a  stucco  covering  is 
more  durable  and  less  costly  to  maintain  than  a  covering  of 
shingles  and  clapboards.  Furthermore,  it  adapts  itself  with 
wonderful  readiness  to  almost  all  the  prevalent  styles  in  domes- 
tic architecture. 

A  situation  may  therefore  arise  —  in  fact  it  does  frequently 
arise  —  where  the  environment  demands  a  structure  of  concrete, 
or  of  stuccoed  masonry,  while  the  owner's  pocketbook  contains 
only  enough  to  pay  for  building  a  skeleton  of  wood,  with  suffi- 
cient left  over  for  a  covering  of  either  shingles  or  stucco.  Most 
people  would  agree  that  a  man  who  would  take  more  than  half 


86  CONCRETE   AND    STUCCO    HOUSES 

enough  to  pay  the  difference  in  cost,  and  will  insure  a  more  com- 
fortable house  both  in  winter  and  summer. 

After  the  sheathing  paper  has  been  applied,  the  wall  is  then 
prepared  to  receive  the  stucco.  It  is  the  author's  opinion,  liow- 
ever,  that  only  four  such  methods  of  preparing  the  wall  deserve 
serious  consideration,  and  that  others  now  practiced  are  but 
temporary  makeshifts  which  sooner  or  later  are  bound  to  involve 
the  owner  in  more  or  less  trouble  and  expense. 

The  least  desirable  of  the  four  methods  is  the  following: 
To  the  sheathing,  which  has  been  well  covered  with  building  paper, 
are  nailed  wood  furring  strips  seven-eighths  of  an  inch  thick 
and  two  inches  wide,  set  vertically  and  spaced  about  ten  inches 
apart.  To  these  strips  a  galvanized  iron  lath  of  "  herring-bone  " 
pattern,  or  of  three-eigliths  of  an  inch  mesh,  stiffened  with  round 
or  V-shaped  rods,  is  tightly  stretched  and  firmly  stapled. 

There  are  at  least  four  objections,  however,  to  tliis  method 
of  preparing  the  wood  framework  of  the  building  to  receive  and 
hold  stucco.  The  shrinking  and  swelling  of  the  wood  strips 
from  atmospheric  changes  are  very  apt  to  cause  the  stucco  to 
crack  on  the  face  of  these  wood  strips,  and  wliile  fine  hair 
cracks  need  cause  no  serious  alarm  and  may  soon  be  covered 
from  view  \\'ith  vines,  a  space  of  a  sixteenth  of  an  inch  or 
more  is  apt  to  admit  moisture  and  frost  with  possible  serious 
consequences. 

A  second  objection  is  the  uncertainty  of  completely  cov- 
ering the  inner  side  of  the  metal  lath  with  the  stucco,  neces- 
sarily apphed  from  the  outside,  and  unless  the  inside  face  of  the 
metal  is  completely  embedded  in  the  stucco,  oxidation  is  bound 
to  ensue,  and  within  a  few  years  the  iron  will  be  completely 
destroyed.  The  writer  has  many  times  obsen-ed  this  condition 
when,  in  altering  and  adding  to  existing  buildings  stuccoed  in 
this  manner,  it  became  necessary  to  cut  through  and  remove  por- 
tions of  the  old  stucco.    Scarcely  anything  remained  of  the  metal 


STUCCO    ON   WOOD    FRA^IE 


37 


mesh  beyond  its  pattern  in  rust,  and  the  stucco  was  merely  hekl 
in  place  by  its  own  weight.  It  had  not  become  dislodged  because 
the  building  had  never  been  sufficiently  jarred  by  wind,  quake 
or  other  disturbance. 

Third,  in  order  to  obtain  a  good  clinch  upon  the  wire  mesh 
and  to  enable  the  mason  to  apply  the  stucco  with  ease  and  dis- 
patch, a  certain  proi^ortion  of  lime  often  forms  an  ingredient 
of  the  first  application,  or  "  scratch  coat,"  of  the  stucco,  and  this 


"PiMin 


swcco 


iTAPLtV  TO  IRON  RODS 


/RON  Cod 


/RON  eiNC 
K£2TINC;  ON  iTAPLt 

tlAQONAL 
iHtATfilNQ 


Si/ZlPMt;  PAP£:R 


Stucco  on  a  herring-bone  t.\-pe  of  metal  lath  stapled  to  iron  rods  to  offset 
the  disadvantage  of  wood  furring  strips 

introduces  an  element  of  weakness  that  is  responsible  for  more 
defective  and  generally  unsatisfactory  stucco  work  than  any  other 
factor.  In  nif)ist  and  rainy  weather  tlie  lime  absorbs  water, 
softens  and  finally  disintegrates,  while  cement  hardens  under  the 
same  conditions.  Tiie  harder  the  stucco  the  longer  it  will  last 
and  the  better  protection  it  will  afford  the  framework  it  covers. 
The  introduction  of  lime  diminishes  the  strength  of  the  mixture 
and  so  invites  a  more  ready  entrance  of  water  and  frost,  which 
may  seriously  imj)air  tlie  walls.  To  tiicse  objections  might  finally 
be  added  the  waste  and  consecjucnt  expense  due  to  the  considerable 
amount  of  stucco  that  falls  down  between  the  mesh  and  the 
sheathing  during  the  operation  of  stuccoing. 


38  CONCRETE   AND    STUCCO   HOUSES 

A  better  method,  and  the  second  of  the  four  to  be  described, 
is  to  use  ordinary  builder's  lath  instead  of  the  thicker  furring 
strip.  The  chances  are  that,  in  applying  the  stucco  to  the  wire 
mesh  fastened  in  this  manner,  the  inside  face  of  the  mesh  will 
be  more  completely  imbedded  by  reason  of  the  resistance  of  the 
sheatliing  to  the  pressure  exerted  in  applying  the  stucco.  As 
none  will  be  lost,  less  stucco  will  be  required,  the  space  between 
the  metal  lath  and  the  sheathing  being  filled  solid  with  the  mortar. 
The  broad  surface  of  the  wood  lath  is  still  an  objection,  however, 
as  it  provides  no  clinch  for  the  stucco  across  its  surface  and  these 
wood  strips  will  shrink  and  swell  as  the  weather  is  dry  or  wet. 

So  we  come  to  a  third  waj'  of  applying  stucco  to  a  frame 
building,  which,  in  the  author's  experience,  has  advantages  over 
the  other  two:  the  troweling  of  the  stucco  upon  a  dovetail- 
grooved  composition  board,  seven-eighths  of  an  inch  thick,  kno^^Ti 
as  "  stucco  board,"  and  which  is  nailed  to  the  sheathing  over  a 
layer  of  hea\y  building  pajjer.  The  manner  of  applying  these 
composition  boards  (a  stucco  composition  reinforced  with  wood 
fiber)  and  of  treating  them  after  they  are  put  in  place  is  of  the 
greatest  importance.  Unless  the  directions  are  closely  followed 
the  finished  product  will  be  most  unsatisfactory.  The  following 
specification  has  been  used  with  success: 

"  Cover  the  sheathing  of  the  outside  frame  walls  with  the 
stucco  board,  nailed  thoroughly  with  large-headed,  galvanized 
slater's  nails,  li/^  in.  long,  using  sixteen  to  twenty  nails  to  each 
sheet. 

"  Sheets  must  be  put  on  with  keys  running  horizontally,  break- 
ing joints  and  leaving  a  space  of  l/o  in.  between  all  edges.  After 
wetting  the  edges  these  spaces  should  at  once  be  filled  in  with 
the  scratch-coat  mixture.  When  ready  to  apply  the  first  coat, 
thoroughly  wet  the  entire  surface  of  the  jilaster  boards,  using  a 
hose. 

"  On  this  apply  a  first  coat,  composed  of  one  part  Portland 
cement  and  three  parts  of  well-washed  sand,  adding  some  hair. 


STUCCO   ON   WOOD   FRAJVIE 


89 


and  forcing  the  mortar  thoroughly  into  the  kej's  of  the  board  and 
over  the  joints  between  the  sheets  to  a  thickness  of  ^2  i"-  from 
face  of  the  board.  When  bone-dry  apply  a  second  coat  I/4  in.  thick, 
composed  of  one  part  cement  and  two  parts  clean  coarse  gravel, 
dashed  on  with  a  paddle.  Bands  and  molded  portions  shall  have 
a  troweled  finish." 

The  advantages  of  this  method  of  supporting  the  stucco,  in 
place  of  a  wire  or  other  metal  mesh,  are  these:  there  is  no  metal 


■pla:>te:2 


iTVCCO 

:>TVCCQ  £,OA(iV  • 

i>UJLDlNC,  PAPlte! 


DIAGONAL 
SMATHING 


Stucco  applied  to  stucco  board  which  is  nailed  directly  to  tlic  sheathing 
without  the  necessity  for  furring  strips  of  an^'  kind 

to  rust ;  there  is  no  necessity  for  using  lime  in  the  scratch  coat, 
as  cement  stucco  will  readily  adhere  to  the  stucco  board;  there 
is  a  minimum  of  waste  and  expense  due  to  the  fact  that  less 
stucco  is  reqm'red  and  none  is  lost  in  the  a])])licati()n;  and,  finally, 
forming  as  it  docs,  in  conjunction  with  the  stucco  board,  a  homo- 
geneous mass  of  nearly  double  the  thickness  of  stucco  as  applied 
to  a  metal  mesh,  the  chance  of  any  penetration  of  moistiu'c  is 
reduced  to  a  minimum.  The  author  had  occasion  some  years  ago 
to  complete  an  unfinished  wing  of  a  frame  house  stuccoed  upon 
this  composition  board.  It  was  necessary  to  cut  into  the  stucco 
in  several  j)laccs,  and  wherever  this  was  done  there  was  no  dis- 
tinguishing, except  in  color,  between  the  stucco  and  the  com- 


40  COXCRETE   AND    STUCCO   HOUSES 

position  board;  both  were  practically  amalgamated  and  as  hard 
as  granite. 

At  all  corners  of  the  walls  of  the  building,  or  of  the  door  and 
window  reveals  and  in  narrow  widths,  such  as  occur  between  the 
timbers  of  half-timbered  construction,  and  in  forming  bands,  cor- 
nices and  other  molded  work,  wire  mesh  should  preferably  be 
used,  as  it  is  obviously  more  pliable  and  more  easily  adjusted  to 
curves  and  angles  than  the  stucco  board.  In  such  instances  the 
mesh  should  overlap  and  be  well  nailed  to  the  adjoining  stucco 
board,  and  the  stucco  firmly  troweled  to  insure  the  complete  im- 
bedding of  the  mesh. 

The  author  freely  admits  that  he  knows  of  architects  and  con- 
tractors who  have  employed  this  dovetail-grooved  stucco  board 
without  success,  and  who  condemn  it  in  emphatic  terms,  but  in 
every  such  instance  which  he  has  investigated,  the  trouble  has 
readily  been  traced  to  the  improper  handling  and  treatment  of 
the  material  employed. 

Iron  and  steel  lath  will  corrode  unless  protected  from  air 
and  water,  which,  besides  oxygen,  may  contain  gases  and  acids 
that  act  upon  these  metals.  Corrosion  is  also  caused  by  electro- 
lytic action  produced  by  the  contact  of  dissimilar  metals,  and 
from  leakage  in  electric  wiring  systems.  There  are  three  more 
or  less  effective  ways  of  protecting  the  metal  lath.  It  may  be 
painted,  and  so  exclude  both  air  and  moisture,  but  the  paint  is 
apt  to  chip  off  or  wear  away  in  the  handling  of  the  lath,  and 
these  vidnerable  spots  offer  points  of  attack.  The  lath  may  be 
galvanized,  that  is,  covered  with  spelter  or  a  coating  of  zinc,  but 
this  attempt  to  stave  off  disintegration  is  difficult  if  not  impos- 
sible of  achievement,  for  without  a  complete  covering  of  the 
lath  a  portion  of  the  surface,  particularly  at  the  edges,  is  likely 
to  be  left  unprotected,  and  here  the  attack  will  begin  and  spread. 
Electrolysis,  the  sulphur-laden  atmosphere  of  our  inland  cities, 
or  the  damp  salt  air  of  the  seaboard,  sooner  or  later  destroys  the 


STUCCO    OX    WOOD    FRA^IE  41 

spelter,  and  for  this  reason  thoroughly  protected  asphaltum- 
covered  lath  is  preferable  to  galvanized  lath.  The  difficulties, 
however,  of  preserving  a  painted  lath  intact  before  it  is  applied 
to  the  building  are  practically  insurmountable,  and  while  the 
action  of  these  corrosive  agents  may  be  retarded  where  the  lath 
is  not  materially  exjjosed,  as  on  the  inside  walls  and  ceilings,  the 
advantage  of  emi)loying  a  rust-resisting  material  to  hold  the 
stucco  on  the  outside  and  exposed  portions  of  a  building  is 
obvious. 

There  has  recently  been  placed  upon  the  market  an  iron  lath 
(called  "ingot  iron")  which  appears  to  have  very  great  rust- 
resisting  j)roi)erties.  The  claim  is  made  that  it  differs  from  or- 
dinary iron  and  steel  in  that  it  contains  a  comparatively  small 
proportion  of  uncombined  carbon,  suljihur,  phosphorus  and  man- 
ganese, thus  enabling  it  to  withstand  to  a  marked  degree  the 
corrosive  action  of  the  elements  and  of  acids  in  the  composition 
of  the  stucco. 

A  stiff-meshed  ingot  iron  lath,  tightly  stretched  and  stapled 
to  the  sheathing  over  I/4  in.  round  ingot  iron  rods,  set  vertically 
12  in.  on  center,  and  kept  free  from  the  building  paper  (with 
which  the  sheathing  should  invariably  be  covered)  by  iron  rings 
previously  slipped  over  the  rods,  would  seem  to  present  an  ex- 
ceptionally firm  and  enduring  mesh  for  the  reception  of  the 
stucco  on  a  frame  building.  This  method  of  fastening  the  mesh 
to  the  sheathing  permits  the  stucco  to  cover  and  imbed  the 
metal;  the  upright  iron  rods  take  the  place  of  wood  furring 
strips,  and  consequently  cracks  from  the  shrinkage  and  swell- 
ing of  the  wooden  member  are  eliminated;  and  if  lime  is 
omitted  from  the  stucco,  and  a  small  portion  of  bydratcd  lime 
used  in  its  place  to  enable  the  mason  to  apply  the  stucco  to  the 
metal  mesh  with  greater  ease,  a  very  satisfactory  wall  of  its  kind 
should  be  obtained. 

There  will  be  more  or  less  movement,  of  course,  in  the  frame 


42  CONCRETE    AND    STUCCO    HOUSES 

structure,  according  to  the  quality  and  condition  of  the  wood, 
but  with  the  use  of  well-seasoned  and  properly  framed  timbers, 
no  serious  cracks  in  the  stucco  veneer  should  occur  with  the  em- 
ployment of  any  of  the  methods  described. 

Many  frame  and  stucco  houses  are  being  built  to-day  with 
walls  improjierly  prepared  and  covered  with  stucco  that  lacks 
enduring  qualities.  Whether  from  ignorance  or  to  save  the  first 
cost,  the  owners  of  these  buildings  will  rue  the  hour  that  they 
decided  to  employ  cheap  or  ill-advised  methods.  It  is  a  great 
misfortune  that  the  average  man  builds  but  once;  but  all  the 
more  reason,  then,  that  he  should  seek  or  listen  to  expert  advice. 
Knowledge  of  any  kind  of  building  construction  is  generally 
limited  to  that  acquired  by  frequent  contact  with  building  op- 
erations, and  the  layman  should  hesitate  long  before  dictating 
how  his  house  shall  be  constructed.  "  A  little  knowledge  is  worse 
than  none."  While  it  is  often  difficult  for  the  arcliitect  to  pre- 
vail upon  his  client  to  spend  a  little  more  in  good  construction 
and  to  convince  him  that  it  will  be  a  good  investment  and  eco- 
nomical in  the  end,  the  day  of  stubborn  opposition  to  such  argu- 
ments is  passing.    We  are  beginning  to  build  for  posterity. 


Stucco  on  Masonry 


WE  will  now  pass  to  the  consideration  of  a  more  stable 
form  of  construction.  But  the  Man  of  IModerate  Means 
need  not  close  the  covers  of  this  book  as  yet  —  not  unless 
his  means  are  very  moderate  indeed,  and  even  then  if  he  is 
willing  to  make  a  shght  sacrifice  in  quantity  to  obtain  quality, 
he  may  still  bear  us  company.  After  all  and  despite  the  pre- 
vailing opinion  held  to  the  contrary,  most  people  build  larger 
houses  than  they  need.  The  rooms  may  be  too  small  —  they 
generally  are  —  but  there  are  too  many  of  them.  There  is  al- 
most always  a  room  that  is  either  unoccupied  or  rarely  visited, 
yet  tliis  unused  room  is  the  cause  of  all  the  other  rooms  being 
a  little  too  cramped,  and  consequently  gives  the  feeling  that 
the  house  itself  is  small.  Were  this  "  undesirable  "  removed  and 
the  same  space  redivided,  rooms  of  sufficient  size  could  be  had 
and  the  small  house  would  become  a  large  one.  So,  many  a  man 
who  could  afford  to  build  a  house  having  outside  walls  of  ma- 
sonry or  concrete  has  required,  or  has  thought  that  he  required, 
so  many  rooms  that  he  has  been  obliged  to  shave  the  cost  here 
and  there.  The  first  "  shaving  "  is  generally  the  cluninatlon  of 
masonry  walls,  substituting  frame  construction  wliifli  is  "  almost 
as  good  "  —  particularly  for  a  temporary  habitation. 

Here  we  have  the  chief  curse  of  and  principal  retard  to  good 
building  and  worthy  architecture  with  which  this  country  is 
afflicted  —  building  for  the  moment  instead  of  for  posterity. 
Of  wliat  avail  are  the  time  and  energy  spent  in  the  solving  of  new 
architectural  problems  if  the  j)r()(Iuets  are  built  of  evanescent 
material?  A  superficial  influence  is  all  that  can  be  attributed 
to  buildings  of  this  character.     On  the  other  hand,  masonry 


44 


CO^XRETE   AXD    STUCCO   HOUSES 


and  concrete  will  tell  the  story  of  our  struggles  for  many  gen- 
erations to  come,  and  our  descendants  will  profit  by  a  thorough 
investigation  of  our  mistakes.  But  assuming  that  we  are  not 
so  concerned  about  the  future  and  that  our  interest  is  more  self- 
centered,  a  masonry  wall  has  many  advantages  over  a  frame 
wall,  both  practical  and  esthetic.  To  begin  with,  it  is  firm.  It 
does  not  shrink  and  warp  and  twist  as  wood  is  apt  to  do.     It 


n 


is^ 


•  HOnsr  ■  AT  -  WIXLIUSLEY  •  .AVAJ4  ■ 
■  FOIL-  GCOBjOZ:  •  H  ■  lX>-\-rE.  •  ILSQj 


*±§- 


rmjT  •  tijOod.- PiAM  • 


First  floor  pkn,  residence  of  George  H.  Lowe,  Esq.,  ^^■ellcsIey,  Mass. 
Allen  W.  Jackson,  architect 

receives  the  stucco  directly  upon  its  face,  avoiding  the  necessity 
of  applying  any  receiving  medium  such  as  a  frame  waU  demands. 
A  masonry  wall  is  generally  thicker  than  a  frame  wall,  and  so 
it  gives  a  deeper  reveal  to  the  doors  and  windows,  increasing 
both  their  beauty  by  the  casting  of  deeper  shadows,  and  their 
serviceableness  by  providing  means  for  more  effectuallj'  draping 
the  openings  than  a  thin  frame  wall  will  allow.  If  the  reveals 
are  deeper  on  the  outside,  greater  protection  from  the  weather 
is  afforded. 


UattttnC€  0/  VUtor  HUinj,  t-:rj.,  iiinntUn,  Hi.  Utnt^ird  SA.jw.  ortltlliyl 

"Tlio  ilccorativi-  |H>.s.siliilili('.H  i>f  -tliicco  arr  aliiiost  iiiiliiiiitcil.     ( 'iiinliiiirii  uilli  'liair-tiiiilxTs' 
it  pniviili'M  a  Nlrikiiif!  roiitra.tt  ti>  tlii-M'  h<hhI<'Ii  iiii'iiilH'n  in  rolur  and  Irxtiiri-" 


Jitsidtncc  of  Ptrct/  A.  Tomis,  Esq.,  Gardin  City.  L.  1 


,  Lins,  urcfiiuct 


^Tntil  greater  attt-ntion  is  paid  to  llu-  r(.lnr  <.f  tiic  aggregates,  roiu-rrtf  tilr  walls 

will    l)t'   >tlH(l»'(i" 


Ji,:.uun<i   uj  Ulu/u^  H ■  Lvux,  Eiq.,   WiUtsUu.  Mass. 


I   .   ./•!,  L  -nil.   nrr/iihil 


'Of  what  avail  are  the  time  and  energy  spent  in  the  solving  of  new  anliitrctiiral 
problems  if  the  products  are  built  tif  ev.inescent  materials?  " 


STUCCO   ON   MASONRY 


45 


Various  kinds  of  material  may  be  employed  in  building  a 
masonry  wall  to  receive  stucco,  and  a  choice  depends  upon  cost 
or  fancy.  Where  stone  is  plentiful  but  of  a  kind  that  is  lacking 
in  agreeable  color  or  character,  stucco  may  be  used  to  advantage 
as  a  covering.  Stone  walls  are  built  at  least  eighteen  inches  thick. 
This  gives  a  deep  window  reveal  which  readily  adapts  itself  to 
almost  any  form  of  treatment  and  combination  cf  draperies. 


•  nOUSZ.  •  AT  •  IVELLCSLEY  ■  >VAJJ  • 
•  FOB.-  CEOSXZE:  ■  H  •  LO\st  ■  tsct,- 


vrmnn  •  nooA  •  px.a.1  • 


Second  floor  plan,  rosirlimce  of  George  H.  Lowe,  Ksq.,  Wclleslcy,  Mass. 
Allen  W.  Jackson,  architect 


curtains,  screens  and  blinds,  often  difficult  to  adjust  in  a  thin 
wall.  Common  brick,  laid  in  ordinary  bond,  makes  an  excellent 
wall  for  the  reception  of  stucco.  Second-hand  brick,  that  is, 
brick  from  an  old  wall  that  has  been  demolished,  may  often  be 
used,  but  they  must  be  cleaned  of  all  old  mortar  or  the  stucco 
will  not  readily  adhere,  and  this  cleaning  process  is  apt  to  be 
costly,  especially  if  the  mortar  is  hard  and  dillicult  to  remove. 
Some  architects  require  the  joints  to  be  raked  out  a  half-inch 
or  more  with  the  idea  of  givuig  a  better  "  clinch  "  for  the  stucco, 


46 


CONCRETE   AND    STUCCO   HOUSES 


but  the  author  has  found  that  a  flush  joint,  provided  the  mortar 
is  a  fairly  strong  cement  mixture,  as  it  should  be  for  stability 
and  durabihty,  forms  a  sufficiently  rough  surface  to  hold  the 
stucco,  and  a  saving  is  thereby  effected  in  the  cost  of  the  labor 
of  raking  out  the  joints. 

Hollow  terra  cotta  blocks,  both  glazed  and  porous,  have  been 
extensively  used  in  the  construction  of  dwellings,  the  outer  sur- 
face being  covered  with  stucco.    The  author  is  not  yet  satisfied 


iiTucco  ■~>j;:^x3>\^ 

^ 

A 

ff:--^^ 

^ 
^ 

> ^  '\y^^^^^'^^^ 

^>e/rA:-/"<K 

P 

^^^^^  tUHRlNG   5T2IP 

Stucco  on  a  brick  wall.     The  furring  strips  are  needed  only  on  the  inside 

that  a  glazed  tile  is  suited  to  this  purpose ;  stucco  does  not  readily 
adhere  to  such  a  surface.  Furthermore,  the  danger  is  ever  present 
of  moisture  jjenetrating  the  stucco  and,  held  there  for  the  reason 
that  the  vitrified  tile  permits  no  further  progress  in  absorj)tion, 
the  probabilities  are  that,  in  freezing  weather,  expansion  and 
a  consequent  destruction  of  the  stucco  will  follow.  The  author 
once  suggested  to  the  manufacturer  of  a  glazed  tile  that  he 
disprove  tliis  theory  by  covering  a  sample  tile  with  stucco, 
drenching  it  with  water  and  allowing  it  to  stand  out-of-doors  on 
a  wintry  night.  The  suggestion  was  accepted  but  was  never 
carried  out  as  agreed.  Porous  terra  cotta  tile  is  better  suited  to 
the  reception  of  stucco,  for  the  reason  that  it  presents  a  rough 
surface  and  one  where  suction  induces  the  stucco  to  adhere.    As 


STUCCO   ON   MASONRY 


47 


in  the  case  of  brick,  porous  tile  must  be  thoroughly  soaked  before 
the  apiilication  of  the  stucco  to  prevent  the  absorption  of  too 
much  water  before  the  cement  has  had  time  to  set.  The  irregu- 
larity of  terra  cotta  tile  and  the  necessity  of  laying  it  "  on  end," 
that  is,  with  the  webs  between  the  air  chambers  vertical,  in  order 
to  attain  the  strength  necessary  to  carry  its  superimposed  load, 
causes  some  difficulty  in  making  a  tight  joint  and  in  laying  the 
tile,  a  considerable  quantity  of  the  mortar  drops  do'wn  into  the 


nam  COTTA  &LOCK 

:>Tucco 


■PLMTf:fi 


r-uf3Ri/i<;  JTBJP 


Stucco  on  terra  cotta  blocks.     To  prevent  damage  due  to  the  condensation 
of  moisture  on  the  inside,  furring  strips  are  needed  to  hold  the  lath  and 
plaster  away  from  the  wall 

air  cells  and  so  is  wasted.  The  difference  in  the  coefficient  of 
expansion  between  stucco  and  terra  cotta  tends  to  loosen  the 
bond  in  changes  of  temperature  and  is  apt  to  cause  cracks  to 
appear  on  the  face  of  the  stucco  with  ahnost  as  great  frequency 
as  when  stucco  is  applied  to  a  wood  frame. 

In  conjunction  with  steel  and  reinforced  concrete  (eliminating 
all  structural  members  of  wood)  terra  cotta,  when  properly  pro- 
tected with  a  concrete  facing,  is  fireproof,  and  for  dwelling  houses 
where  a  great  degree  of  heat  woidd  ni)t  be  so  likely  to  develop 
in  case  of  fire,  the  terra  cotta  block  stuccoed  on  the  outside  and 
furred  and  plastered  on  the  inside  is  an  efficient  fire-resisting  ma- 


48 


CONCRETE    AND    STUCCO    HOUSES 


terial.  It  is  light  and  yet  strong  enough  to  bear  the  usual  loads 
required  in  the  construction  of  residences.  The  tile  is  made  of 
burned  clay  and  fashioned  in  a  hollow  form  with  connecting  webs 
to  insure  streng-th.  It  is  an  enduring  material,  except  that  when 
heated  to  an  intense  degree  and  suddenly  cooled  b)'  the  appli- 
cation of  water,  it  collapses.  The  claims  made  of  its  virtues  are 
often  exaggerated.     The  cost  of  tile  construction  exceeds  that 


JT-JCCO- 

Tt/itA  am  eiocK- 


/tOB-Bivri/P-- 


KCQl'IC  iTSm 
■PL/liTti 


,nniinto  noot. 


.CmStli  COfiCJttTC 


t'tdNf-OiUB 
COUCktlt  UAH3 


hrtiL  etmroecwa  rom 
{tudtu  ae  Pi/iin) 


A  Breproof  floor  construction  in  combination  with  terra  cotta  tile  walls 
Reinforced  concrete  beams  support  the  tile  floor  arches,  on  top  of  which 
are  laid  wooden  sleepers  in  concrete,  the  finished  floor  being  nailed  to  the 

former 

of  wood  by  enough  margin  to  cause  it  to  be  rejected  in  many 
instances.  It  readily  absorbs  water  and  is  a  good  conductor  of 
heat  and  cold,  and  the  claim  that  the  air  spaces  furnish  complete 
insulation  against  atmospheric  conditions  is  misleading.  Owing 
to  the  rough  and  uneven  outline  of  the  block  a  good  tight  joint 
is  not  readily  obtained,  and  as  the  block  usually  employed  in 
building  the  outside  walls  of  two-story  and  three-story  houses 
is  only  eight  inches  thick,  dampness  is  very  apt  to  penetrate, 
especially  if  the  stucco  covering  carries  an  admixture  of  lime. 
The  air  spaces  formed  in  the  manufacture  of  the  tile  are  not 


STUCCO    ON    MASONRY  49 

of  a  character  wholly  to  insulate  the  rooms  against  heat  or  cold  or 
to  overcome  condensation  on  the  inside. 

Stucco  on  steel  frame  has  been  employed  in  a  number  of 
instances  but  rarely  in  the  construction  of  residences.  This 
method  of  building  has  interesting  possibilities,  and  may  come 
into  more  general  use  when  gi-eater  familiarity  with  its  properties 
discloses  more  stable  forms  and  more  economical  ways  of  con- 
struction and  finish. 

There  is  a  great  saving  in  the  cost  of  labor  when  the  difference 
in  kind  and  size  of  materials  employed  is  reduced  to  a  minimum. 
In  steel  construction  economy  is  sought  and  obtained  in  design- 
ing the  structure  in  a  manner  that  will  require  the  least  variation 
in  the  size  of  its  members.  And  in  the  masonry  construction  of 
the  future  a  similar  principle  will  be  employed  in  selecting  for 
use  labor-saving  units,  whether  of  stone,  brick  or  concrete,  of 
the  size,  color  and  surface  texture  demanded  by  the  spirit  of  the 
design. 


T'he  Concrete  Block 


THE  industry  of  hollow  concrete  block-making  in  America 
has  been  greatly  injured  by  the  fact  that  bad  concrete 
blocks  are  so  easily  and  inexpensively  made.  Cement  and 
rubbish  have  been  mixed  and  rammed  into  the  simple  machinery 
required,  and  building  blocks  poor  in  comj^osition  and  monotonous 
in  form  and  color  have  been  turned  out  by  the  million  and  used 
to  erect  buildings  that  are  eyesores  in  the  community.  There  is 
no  inherent  defect  either  in  the  construction  or  in  the  esthetic  prop- 
erties of  a  well-made  concrete  block  having  a  bush-hanmiered, 
tooled  or  plain  face.  In  the  hands  of  a  skillful  architect  who  ap- 
preciates the  possibilities  and  limitations  of  the  block,  its  use  may 
be  productive  of  durable  structures  of  great  beauty  and  dignity. 

The  so-called  concrete  block,  meaning  the  "  dry-process  " 
block,  of  "  stock  "  size,  has  been  catering  to  popular  favor  for  a 
number  of  years,  but  without  marked  success,  no  doubt  because 
most  of  these  concrete  blocks  are  not  concrete  at  all,  and  conse- 
quently do  not  perform  the  services  anticipated  from  their  prom- 
ising name.  Reference  to  page  16  will  show  that  water  is  an 
important  ingredient  in  the  forming  of  concrete.  The  dry-process 
block  has  little  acquaintance  with  water  during  its  process  of 
manufacture.  Consequently  it  harbors  an  unquenchable  thirst, 
and,  when  used  in  the  outside  walls  of  a  building,  it  proceeds  to 
make  up  for  lost  time,  every  rainstorm  furnishing  the  elements 
of  a  "  spree  "  to  the  detriment  of  the  block.  The  dry-process 
block  lacks  the  density  and  strength  that  are  given  to  concrete  by 
the  admixture  of  a  certain  percentage  of  water  (about  eight  per 
cent  of  the  weight  of  the  dry  mixture),  sufficient  to  make  it 
plastic.    Concrete  of  such  constituency,  when  poured  into  a  mold 


THE   CONCRETE   BLOCK  51 

to  form  the  block,  must  obviously  remain  undisturbed  until  the 
cement  has  set  sufficiently  to  allow  the  removal  of  the  mold 
without  injury  to  the  block.  This  process  is  too  slow  for  the 
exploiter  of  the  "  concrete  block,"  so  he  eliminates  a  greater  part 
of  the  water  and  proceeds  to  make  his  concrete  dry,  or  barely 
moist,  shoveling  it  into  a  machine  that  rams  the  mixture  into  a 
sufficiently  compact  form  to  enable  it  to  be  removed  in  the  shape 
of  a  hollow  building  block  —  but  it  is  not  a  concrete  block,  as 


PlMltSt 


CONCetTt  DLOCK- 


■i-unwQ  MiP 


A  wull  of  concrctf  blcnkM  in  which  the   oulsich-   fine  of   the  blmk  projects 
very  slightly  beyoud  the  joint  edge 

those  who  buy  and  use  it  learn  to  their  sorrow.  Even  if  made 
of  the  best  material,  it  is  merely  a  mixture  of  cement,  sand  and 
gravel,  slightly  moistened,  aud  for  the  very  reason  that  it  lacks 
a  sufficient  proportion  of  water,  it  demands  a  supply  after  it 
is  placed  in  the  wall.  Every  masonry  wall  should  be  thoroughly 
drenched  before  the  stucco  is  applied,  but  the  so-called  concrete 
block  absorbs  so  much  water  that  it  generally  takes  all  that  a 
sprinkling  will  give  it  and  such  as  is  contained  in  the  stucco  be- 
side. To  make  the  wall  impenious  to  moisture  its  face  is  then 
treated  with  a  so-called  waterproofing  compound,  but  generally 


52 


CONCRETE   AND    STUCCO   HOUSES 


without  success.    The  underlying  trouble  with  this  type  of  block 
is  that  its  composition  is  fundamentally  ^^Tong. 

Blocks  made  from  a  concrete  that  has  merely  been  moistened 
will  always  remain  soft  and  weak,  no  matter  how  thoroughly 
they  are  afterwards  sprinkled.  The  ingredients  should  not  only 
be  properly  proportioned  but  thoroughly  mixed.  Just  as  a  chain 
is  no  stronger  than  its  weakest  link,  the  stability  of  the  block 
as  a  whole  is  no  greater  than  its  feeblest  part.    Careless  mixing 


C0//CR£7i:  TIU  &10C, 


'PLMTtH 


tl/HQING  iWP 


A  wall  of  concrete  tile  blocks  with  stucco  applied  directly  to  the  face  of  the 
blocks  on  the  outside,  and  the  customary  furring  strips,  lath  and  plaster 

on  the  inside 

and  the  addition  of  too  little  water  are  more  often  th^  causes 
of  a  crumbling  block  than  too  little  cement. 

The  sight,  or  mention,  of  the  "  concrete  block  "  in  its  present 
crude  form,  especially  in  imitation  of  "  cut  "  and  "  rock-faced  " 
stone,  has  been  sufficient  to  band  the  architectural  profession 
together  as  a  unit  in  protest  and  condemnation.  Not  that  a  con- 
crete block,  if  treated  as  concrete,  is  in  itself  an  artistic  impossi- 
bility—  witness  brick  which  has  achieved  an  esthetic  value  by 
reason  of  its  own  merit,  but  as  a  cheap  and  vulgar  imitation  of 
stone,  concrete  will  never  be  acceptable  in  any  work  of  worth. 


hisUrncr  u/  J,  liUh  Shrra,  HU;  I'""  '  li''l",  A  .   I 


■('iincn-tr  iim.sl  iiUiiys  liH>k  like  sitiiu-.  Iioiuim-  it  i>  stum-.     Hut  coiuTflr  is  nut  qiiiirrii-<l, 
mill  Ml  it  sliiiulil  iirvrr  Im-  iiiiiilr  to  iniilati-  it  nK-k-fannl  (|iiurrii-<l  slolir" 


THE    COXCRETE    BLOCK 


53 


The  glowing  prospect  of  profits  held  out  to  the  manufacturer 
has  led  a  great  many  inexperienced  men  to  employ  methods  that 
effect  a  saving  in  cost  to  the  detriment  of  the  jiroduct,  in  conse- 
quence of  which  vast  quantities  of  improperly  made  blocks  have 
been  placed  upon  the  market  and  used  by  others,  equally  inex- 
perienced and  deaf  to  everj'  call  but  that  of  the  Almighty  Dollar, 
in  erecting  buildings  that  have  proven  to  be  damp  and  ugly. 
In  order  to  quench  the  abnormal  tliirst  of  this  dry  block  a  kill- 


coHCurt  r/u  uock 


iTVCCO- 


PlMTtR 
■JiMC 

-rmnntD  nooz 
eoi/cit  noon 


*nOt>li   ttAMJ 


eioa  f/oTctito  our 

^J^iCm  I.V  SLOCK 

f-iLLtD  wiTJt  coNcaiTc: 


'CHAmtL  BLOCK. 
f-IUiD  UITH  COSCStTt 


A  wall  of  concrete  tile  blocks  «-ith  wooden  fl<jor  boaius  and  floors  —  a  con- 
struclion  which  is  not  fireproof 

or-cure  remedy  was  evolved  in  the  form  of  a  facing  of  a  more  dense 
mixtm-e  applied  to  the  block  and  fashioned  to  unitate  quarried 
stone.  This  monotonous  and  hideous  mask  sounded  the  death 
knell  to  the  prospect  of  building  up  an  industry  of  any  great  pro- 
portions. But  it  also  set  in  motion  the  minds  of  men  more  ex- 
perienced in  the  projierties  of  cement  and  concrete,  with  the  result 
that  within  a  year  or  two  there  has  appeared  for  building  construc- 
tion a  concrete  block,  in  substance  as  well  as  hi  name,  that  gives 
promise  of  being  extensively  used  not  only  to  receive  a  covering  of 
stucco  but  to  face  the  world  with  its  own  individualitv.    This  block, 


54  CONCRETE    AND    STUCCO    HOUSES 

better  described  as  a  concrete  hollow  tile,  is  made  of  wet  con- 
crete composed  of  the  proper  proportions  of  cement,  sand  and 
gravel,  with  sufficient  water  added  to  enable  it,  when  placed  in 
the  molds  and  subjected  to  a  process  that  accelerates  the  setting 
of  the  cement,  to  acquire  the  properties  of  concrete  and  yet  be 
removed  from  the  dies  with  great  rapidity.  This  new  concrete 
product  is  true  and  even  in  form,  light  in  weight,  strong  and 
durable,  and  ajjparently  holds  a  stucco  finish  with  permanency. 
The  smooth  and  unusually  large  air  cells  afford  a  greater  degree 
of  attempted  insulation  against  cold  than  is  true  of  either  the  terra 
cotta  block  or  the  dry-process  block,  and,  because  of  its  density, 
far  greater  weatherproof  qualities.  It  is  cheaper  to  make  and, 
because  of  its  lightness  and  its  true  and  even  surface,  it  is  easier 
and  cheaper  to  erect  than  a  heavy  block  or  an  irregular  terra 
cotta  tile ;  moreover,  as  the  concrete  tile  is  laid  on  its  bed  there  is 
a  minimum  loss  of  mortar  and  a  greater  assurance  of  tight  joints. 
When  the  joints  are  neatly  pointed,  the  wall  presents  a  clean 
and  fairly  pleasing  appearance  that  will  no  doubt  improve  when 
greater  attention  is  paid  to  the  color  of  the  aggregates.  Until 
then  concrete  tile  walls  will  be  stuccoed.  The  coefficients  of 
expansion  of  stucco  and  of  concrete  tile  being  approximately  the 
same,  the  bond  is  not  affected  by  changes  of  temperature  and  the 
stucco  therefore  adheres  more  readilj^  than  to  terra  cotta.  For  all 
purposes  of  country  house  construction  concrete  tile  is  fire-proof, 
and  the  proportionately  large  vohmie  of  air  cells  may  overcome 
the  necessity  of  furring  the  block  to  keep  out  dampness  from 
percolation  and  condensation.  Exjjeriments  to  this  end  are  being 
made,  to  the  writer's  knowledge,  but  a  satisfactory  test  of  the 
ability  of  this  block  to  overcome  the  requirement  of  furring  has 
not  been  made  at  the  time  this  book  goes  to  press.  Altogether 
it  is  a  very  promising  building  material,  and  while  time  may  un- 
cover certain  defects  these  will  no  doubt  be  quickly  remedied,  for 
the  underlying  principle  of  construction  in  this  block  is  a  good  one. 


THE   CONCRETE   BLOCK  55 

In  the  New  London  house  iUustrated  herewith  the  blocks  were 
made  on  the  premises,  of  a  size  suited  to  the  proportions  of  the 
building,  nine  by  twenty-four  inches,  and  surfaced  with  a  care- 
fully selected  aggregate  of  coarse  gravel  pressed  into  a  fairly 
wet  mixture.  After  initial  set  the  face  was  gently  scrubbed,  ex- 
posing the  aggregate,  and  the  blocks  were  given  frequent  sprink- 
lings and  then  allowed  to  "  season  "  for  ten  days.  A  clever  ruse 
was  employed  to  overcome  the  crude  appearance  of  the  arris  at 
the  joints  by  slightly  projecting  the  face  of  the  block  to  within 
about  an  inch  of  the  joint,  thus  accentuating  each  block  with  inter- 
esting shadows.  No  one  can  question  the  beauty  of  the  projior- 
tions  of  this  building,  nor  the  admirable  effect  obtained  here  by 
the  use  of  the  unveneered  concrete  block.  Before  it  is  generally 
employed  by  architects,  the  concrete  block  must  be  made  of  a 
dense  mixture,  therefore  din-able  and  waterj)roof;  it  must  be 
furnished  in  any  size  or  shape  required  by  the  architect's  design ; 
and  finally,  it  must  have  a  pleasing  aspect  and  not  be  an  miitation 
of  any  stone  which  in  appearance  is  unlike  concrete.  Concrete 
must  always  look  like  stone  because  it  is  stone.  But  concrete  is 
not  (piurricd,  and  so  it  should  never  be  made  to  imitate  a  rock-face 
quarried  stone.  The  concrete  block  should  stand  upon  its  own 
merits,  appear  what  it  is,  and  not  pretend  to  be  what  it  is  not. 
The  most  promising  surface  thus  far  obtained  is  by  the  use  of  a 
colored  aggregate  from  which  the  dull  film  of  cement  is  washed 
with  a  scrubbing  brush  and  clean  water. 


Furring 


COXDENSATIOX  of  moisture  may  often  be  obsen-ed  on 
the  inside  of  solid  concrete  or  masonry  walls  and  walls  of 
hollow  tile  whose  webs  of  similar  material  necessarily  con- 
nect the  inside  and  outside  faces  of  the  blocks.  This  phenomenon 
is  caused  by  the  difference  in  temperature  between  the  inside 
face  of  the  cold  outside  wall  and  the  humid  air  which  it  encloses. 
The  tighter  the  wall,  that  is,  the  more  dense  and  compact  it  is 
built,  the  more  apparent  will  be  the  condensation  of  moisture. 
Such  a  wall  becomes  cold  in  winter  and  stays  cold  so  long  as  the 
winter  lasts;  it  will  radiate  a  chill  through  the  room,  and  when- 
ever the  outside  temperature  rises,  or  a  damp  wind  arrives, 
beads  of  moisture  will  be  found  upon  the  walls  and  ceilings  of 
the  room  despite  the  normal  heating  of  the  house.  This  same 
phenomenon  is  noticed  on  the  cold-water  jiipes  in  a  damp  warm 
cellar,  or  on  a  glass  of  ice  water  in  a  warm  room.  To  overcome 
the  chill  from  cold  walls,  and  dampness  both  from  condensation 
and  percolation,  "  furring  "  is  required.  The  word  is  derived  from 
the  protecting  coat  of  animal  fur.  Furring  consists  in  building 
a  sujiport  for  the  plaster  in  such  a  manner  as  to  provide  an  air 
space  between  the  inside  plaster  and  the  outer  wall.  This  may  be 
done  either  by  nailing  to  the  wall  wood  or  metal  strips  not  less 
than  one  inch  in  thickness,  to  which  the  lath  and  plaster  are  ap- 
plied, or  by  building  a  thin  brick  or  hollow  block  partition,  set  at 
least  one  inch  away  from  the  outer  Avail,  and  upon  which  the 
plaster  may  be  directly  applied.  A  four-inch  hollow  block  cut 
in  two,  with  the  webs  laid  against  the  outer  wall,  provides  effec- 
tive insulation. 

It  is  necessary  to  fur  all  outside  concrete  or  masonry  walls. 


FURRING 


57 


including  those  built  of  hollow  tile.  The  claim  that  the  air 
spaces  of  hollow  tile  are  a  sufficient  insulation  against  cold,  and 
a  preventive  of  condensation  or  sweating  of  the  interior  walls 


First  floor  plan,  residence  o(  Harold  F.  McCormick.  Esq.,  Lake  Forest.  III. 
Charles  A.  Piatt,  architect 

in  warm,  humid  weather,  is  not  borne  out  by  experience.  Furring 
is  not  only  necessary  to  prevent  dampness  from  ]>crcolating 
through  a  porous  outside  wall,  but   to   form  a  doad-air  space 


58  CONCRETE    AXD    STUCCO    HOUSES 

between  a  dense  outside  wall  and  the  inside  wall  surface  to  pre- 
vent condensation.  In  other  words,  every  structure  built  of 
masonry  in  climates  where  cold  and  dampness  prevail  must  have 
two  lateral  walls  —  the  supporting  wall  and  a  false  partition  or 
semi-partition  called  furring.  The  space  so  formed  should  be  as 
nearly  as  possible  an  uninterrupted  dead  air  cell.  A  free  circula- 
tion of  air  tends  to  destroy  the  efficiency  of  furring.  This  require- 
ment of  furring  is  one  reason  why  masonry  construction  is  more 
costly  than  frame  construction.  Any  well-built  wall  should  be 
watertight  above  ground,  and  so-called  waterproofing  compomids 
applied  to  the  exterior  or  interior  surfaces  of  an  outside  wall  do 
not  produce  this  condition,  when  the  wall  is  poorly  built. 

The  unfurred  wall  has  a  champion  here  and  there,  but  it  is 
generally  conceded  that  for  structures  intended  to  house  human 
beings  with  any  comfort,  an  air  space  between  the  outside  and 
inside  surfaces  of  the  outer  wall  is  for  the  present  a  necessity. 
Capillary  attraction  will  draw  the  moisture  through  the  wall 
wherever  it  finds  the  tiniest  entrance,  and  unless  the  outer  surface 
is  made  impervious  to  the  weather,  furring  will  be  required  to 
insure  against  the  complete  penetration  of  dampness.  But  then 
the  evils  of  condensation  remain  to  be  overcome.  Health  and 
comfort  demand  that  the  outside  wall  of  residences  shall  be  furred. 


'  \\  iiatcviT  hislurv  wi-  Anirricaus  havr  is  of  coinparalivfly  rt'cont  ori^'in  and  a  pnipcr 

pritli-  ill  native  aiic-i-:>try,  in  national  IjKkhI  and  indi^enuiis  types  and 

styles  is  largely  a  matter  of  future  privilege" 


''Tlie  styles  of  one  eenlury  an'  readily  lra«ed  to  thoM'  of  llie  tvnlury  In-fore,  and  in  the  U'st 
•  '\ainpti-s  Hi;  liml  iht-in  modified  to  >nit  tin-  (-ondilii>n>  of  a  new  eii\  in>nment " 


Fire-Resisting  and  Fireproof  Construction 


A  TRAGEDY  chronicled  with  starthng  frequency  in  the 
daily  newspapers  is  the  destruction  of  some  large  country 
residence,  and  while,  fortunately,  the  lives  of  the  occu- 
pants are  rarely  lost,  valuable  property  and  often  priceless 
treasures  are  ruinously  damaged,  if  not  whollj'  destroj'ed.  As 
long  as  jjeople  will  build  structures  of  wood  in  localities  where 
the  means  of  fighting  fires  are  inadequate,  frame  houses,  wliich 
need  only  a  sj^ark  and  a  breeze  to  reduce  them  and  their  con- 
tents to  ashes,  often  before  the  volunteer  brigade  has  fairly  tum- 
bled itself  out  of  bed  and  learned  the  location  of  the  fire,  just 
so  long  will  a  man's  country  home  be  in  jeopardy,  and  his  heart 
nourish  a  constant  fear  of  the  catastrojjhe  that  may  visit  him 
and  his  at  any  moment. 

We  spend  millions  of  dollars  annually  for  fire-fighting  ap- 
paratus and  organizations  of  all  degrees  of  efficiency,  yet  as  much 
wealth  is  annually  wasted  both  in  the  destruction  of  projjcrty  and 
upon  insurance.  Were  conununities  compelled  to  build  of  fire- 
resisting  or  fireproof  material,  losses  from  fire  might  be  reduced 
to  a  reasonul)le  figure.  Fire  preventii)n  would  be  far  more 
effective  and  far  less  costly  than  fire  fighting. 

The  lowering  of  insurance  rates  alone  is  often  not  enough  of 
an  incentive  to  employ  fireproof  construction,  but  if,  as  has  been 
suggested,  municipalities  would  find  it  expedient  to  offer  a  mod- 
erate reduction  in  taxes  as  an  inducement  to  erect  unburnable 
structures,  the  frame  house  would  iind  few  champions. 

A  few  years  ago  the  palatial  country  home  of  one  of  our 
prominent  millionaires  was  completely  destroyed  by  fire.  Of 
the  many  priceless  treasures  it  held,  only  a  few  were  saved.    Tlie 


60  CONCRETE   AND    STUCCO   HOUSES 

loss  to  the  owner  is  reported  to  have  been  over  $1,000,000,  but 
this  huge  sum  is  probablj'  a  low  estimate  considering  the  impossi- 
bility of  replacing  the  collections  of  a  lifetime.  The  outside  walls 
in  tliis  case  were  built  of  masonr}',  and  wood  construction  was 
used  for  the  interior  partitions  and  floors. 

A  few  months  later  the  newspapers  recorded  a  tragedy  in  the 
burning  of  a  residence  at  Long  Branch,  N.  J.  The  burned  body 
of  a  httle  girl  found  in  the  cellar,  the  mother  and  father  at  the 
point  of  death  from  burns  and  shock,  and  the  other  occujiants 
severely  if  not  fatally  injured  by  jimiping  from  the  upper  win- 
dows, is  the  gist  of  a  gruesome  tale.  The  report  makes  no 
mention  of  what  material  this  house  was  built,  but  from  the 
rapidity  with  which  the  flames  spread  it  was  evidently  of  a  most 
inflammable  kind.  That  no  such  catastrophes  as  these  could  have 
occurred,  had  concrete  been  the  building  medium  employed,  would 
seem  to  be  a  conservative  statement  of  fact. 

The  pubhc  is  often  deliberately  deceived  or  misled  through 
ignorance  into  accepting  as  a  fact  the  statement  made  that  such 
and  such  a  building  is  "  fireproof."  No  building  in  wliich  any 
material  is  used  in  its  construction  and  finish  that  will  be  unable 
to  withstand  the  heat  likely  to  be  generated  by  the  combustion 
of  the  contents  of  the  building,  or  the  action  of  water  upon  the 
heated  surfaces,  is  fireproof.  The  author  recalls  a  booklet  pub- 
hshed  by  a  cement  manufacturer  and  illustrated  with  houses 
purporting  to  be  built  of  "  concrete,"  with  an  implication  that 
they  were  fireproof,  whereas  a  large  percentage  of  the  pictures 
showed  houses  that  to  the  author's  knowledge  were  built  of  wood 
frame  covered  with  stucco.  While  this  form  of  construction  may 
be  made  more  or  less  fire-resisting,  it  is  by  no  means  fireproof. 

The  great  conflagrations  that  have  visited  certain  sections 
of  this  country  have  demonstrated  pretty  thoroughly  that  there 
is  but  one  structural  material  that  can  be  relied  upon  to  with- 
stand great  heat  in  conjunction  with  the  streams  of  water  which 


UtsliUnc<  of  HiMll  y.  McfornLt.  Hil.,  LaJtt  yottil.  III  (Viarlfi  A.  riill.  iirc/IUcrt 

"Trrllis.«(>rk  in  viiliijil>lr  in  lirnikiiin  U|i  a  lix.  iiiiiiuil<iii>iu>  >lril<li  of  wall  Mirfaii-" 


liestdence  of  Harold  F.  McCormtck,  Esq.,  Lake  Forest,  III. 


Charles  A.  Piatt.  archUccl 


*'A  masonry  wall  is  generally  thicker  than  a  frame  wall  and  sn  it  gives  a  deeper  reveal  to 
th.-  tloo.-s  anJ  \vi  ido.vs,  i.icreasing  both  their  beauty  .  .  .  amj  t.ieir  serviceableness  " 


FIRE-RESISTIXG    CONSTRUCTION  61 

generally  reach  the  heated  surfaces  of  the  building  in  an  en- 
deavor to  extinguish  the  blaze,  and  that  is  concrete.  Brick,  stone, 
and  plaster  will  crumble  and  iron  bend.  Terra  cotta  will  fuse 
and  at  the  touch  of  water  fly  to  pieces.  Girders  and  posts  of 
heavy  yellow  pine  will  hold  their  loads  more  readily  than  steel 
and  iron  when  exposed  to  flames.  Concrete  will  disintegrate  to 
the  extent  of  possibly  an  inch  and  a  half  in  the  fiercest  of  fires, 
but  if  the  size  of  the  reinforcements  and  the  thickness  of  the  con- 
crete covering  to  steel  and  terra  cotta  members  has  been  designed 
with  this  eventuahty  in  mind,  no  collapse  of  the  structure  will  be 
likely  to  occur  and  the  injured  concrete  surfaces  may  be  restored. 

The  heat  generated  in  a  fire  in  a  country  residence  by  the 
contents  of  the  building  is  not  apt  to  be  so  great  that  any 
form  of  well-constructed  masonry,  tile  or  concrete,  employed  in 
the  outside  walls,  floors  and  partitions,  will  be  unable  to  with- 
stand successfully  the  attack.  When  the  roof  is  covered  with 
tile,  wooden  rafters  are  often  employed,  for,  with  the  attic  floor 
constructed  of  fireproof  or  fire-resisting  material,  the  chances  are 
that  the  flames  will  not  reach  the  rafters,  or  they  may  only  be 
charred,  or  at  most  the  roof  will  collapse  without  injury  to  the 
floor  beneath. 

The  eff^ect  of  a  fire  in  a  newly  completed  residence  designed 
by  the  author  some  years  ago,  affords  an  interesting  illustration 
of  the  efficacy  of  concrete  construction  against  injury  by  fire  and 

water.    Mr.  B showed  wisdom  and  forcsiglit  in  demanding  an 

unburnable  house,  and  the  illustrations  of  his  residence  at  Ardsley- 
on-the-IIudson,  N.  Y.,  show  what  has  been  achieved  through 
the  medium  of  reinforced  concrete.  This  material  has  been  used 
for  the  outside  and  bearing  walls,  and  for  the  under-floor  con- 
struction, with  partitions  and  furring  of  hollow  terra  cotta  blocks. 
The  only  structural  parts  of  wood  are  the  roof  rafters,  and  these 
are  covered  with  tile.  The  owner  has  announced  that  he  will 
carry  no  insurance  except  on  the  furnishings,  and  he  has  bought 


62  CONCRETE   AND    STUCCO   HOUSES 

his  freedom  from  worry  over  the  possible  destruction  of  his 
house  from  fire  or  general  deterioration.  For  concrete,  properly 
built,  is  not  onh'  fire-,  damp-  and  vermin-proof,  but  it  largely 
insures  against  future  "  repair  "  bills. 

The  style  of  the  house  may  be  termed  a  modification  of  the 
Spanish  Renaissance,  to  which  concrete  adapts  itself  with  especial 
readiness.  The  outside  walls  are  finished  with  a  pebble-dash  of 
a  warm  gi'ay.  The  consoles  supporting  the  lintels,  and  the  panels 
above  the  second-storj-  windows,  are  of  molded  concrete  cast 
from  the  sculjitor's  model  in  three  colors  —  white,  gray  and  yel- 
low. The  rafter-ends,  window  casings  and  all  other  outside  wood- 
work, is  stained  a  gray-black,  and  the  roof  is  croAvned  with  a 
yellow-brown  tile. 

A  broad  terrace,  enclosed  with  a  balustrade  of  manufactured 
stone  and  jjaved  with  yellow  brick,  adorns  the  west  facade,  from 
wliich  a  flight  of  steps  leads  to  the  lawn,  while  to  the  south  lies 
the  loggia  overlooking  the  formal  garden. 

Between  two  of  the  gables  tliere  is  a  flat  concrete  deck,  from 
which  a  broad  view  of  the  surrounding  landscape  is  obtained,  and 
to  make  this  roof  absolutely  waterproof,  the  specifications  called 
for  the  foundation  to  be  covered  with  several  layers  of  tar  felt 
bedded  in  pitch.  In  preparing  for  this  work,  the  jntch,  contained 
in  a  small  kettle,  was  being  "  cooked  "  over  a  coke  fire,  when  the 
contents  suddenly  boiled  over  and  in  an  instant  the  entire  attic 
was  afire.  The  worlonen  made  a  desperate  effort  to  extinguish 
the  flames,  but  owing  to  the  intense  heat  and  the  fact  that  there 
was  at  hand  only  a  rubber  hose  an  inch  in  diameter,  and  a  small 
quantity  of  sand,  they  were  unable  to  make  much  headway.  For- 
tunately a  neighbor,  seeing  the  smoke  and  the  glare,  hurried  to 
the  scene  with  a  few  hand-grenades,  and  the  progress  of  the  fire 
was  soon  after  checked.  The  blaze  did  not  last  more  than 
ten  or  fifteen  minutes,  otherwise  the  roof  would  have  been  com- 
pletely destroyed.     Most  of  the  rafters  were  charred,  but  only 


ttJ.nct  o/  llii'okt  A'.  McformUt, 


.  iMit  ro'iu.  lu. 


Chtvhs  .1.  I'lau.  archtuct 


TImt   till-  l»y  of  llir  Ijiiiil,  iiiul  lli  •  \\n-A»  anil  ilmraclrri.'.tiis  of  llif  iiilialiititiit.s 
•  li-l.riiiiiii-  till-  slvlf  of  ;.nliil<-.liin-  t"  Ih>  i'iii|>l>iyitl  i>  an  iinili>|>iitc<l  fait" 


FIRE-RESISTING    CONSTRUCTION  63 

to  a  depth  of  a  quarter-inch  where  the  fire  was  hottest.  A  few 
of  the  dormer  window  frames  and  rafter-ends  and  about  two 
hundred  square  feet  of  roof  sheathing  were  badly  burned  and 
had  to  be  replaced.  If  the  attic  floor  had  been  built  of  wood  or 
some  other  inflammable  material,  undoubtedly  the  whole  building 
would  have  been  consumed.  On  the  other  hand,  had  the  owner 
indulged  himself  in  a  concrete  roof,  it  is  safe  to  say  that  there 
would  have  been  merely  the  spectacle  of  a  "  bonfire,"  with  no 
resultant  damage  beyond  the  loss  of  the  pitch.  Neither  fire  nor 
water  penetrated  the  attic  floor;  in  fact,  there  was  nothing  below 
the  second-story  ceiling  to  indicate  the  conflagration  which  had 
raged  above. 

Another  similar  incident  is  described  as  follows  in  the  Doyles- 
town  (Pa.)  Intelligencer: 

"  With  the  mercury  hanging  about  the  80-degree  mark,  at 
9.30  Friday  evening,  an  alarm  of  fire  was  given  and  it  was 

reported  that  the  barn  at  the  home  of  JNIrs.  S on  East  Court 

Street  was  ablaze.  In  an  incredibly  short  time  the  firemen  had 
all  the  apparatus  going  out  toward  the  scene  of  the  alleged  fire, 
and  they  had  the  hose  attached  when  it  was  found  that  the  alarm 
was  a  fake.  The  fire  was  only  a  I)la/.e  which  II.  C.  M.  had  made  on 
top  of  his  concrete  mansion  farther  out  toward  the  Swamp  Road, 
to  celebrate  his  birthday  which  came  on  '  bonfire  day,'  I)ut  natur- 
ally anyone  seeing  the  fire  on  top  of  a  house  at  night  would  think 
the  services  of  the  hose  company  were  needed.  Nearly  every 
resident  of  the  town  followed  the  fire  company  and  the  sidewalks 
were  crowded  for  squares." 

Cement  Aye  comments  upon  this  news  item,  as  follows: 

"  This  is  the  sort  of  story  that  is  causing  the  insurance  man 
to  sit  up  and  take  notice,  and  likewise  the  citizen  who  wants  an 
indestructil)le  house.  The  structure  referred  to  is  of  reinforced 
coiicrete  throughout,  and  a  fire  could  bo  started  in  niiy  part  of 
the  building  witiiout  endangering  a  single  structural  tValure 
except  the  window  frames.     In  some  cases  even  these  are  made 


64 


CONCRETE   AND    STUCCO   HOUSES 


of  cement.  Foundations,  walls,  columns,  beams,  floors,  stairways 
and  roof  are  all  of  indestructible  concrete,  and  tbe  Ijonfire  on  the 
roof  of  this  house  was  placed  there  at  less  risk  than  would  be  the 
case  with  a  fire  in  the  furnace  of  an  orduaary  house.  In  fact, 
there  was  absolutely  no  risk." 

Many  houses  of  which  the  outside  walls  are  built  of  stone, 
concrete,  brick  or  hollow  tile,  with  inside  partitions  and  floor 
beams  of  wood,  are  often  erroneously  referred  to  as  "  fireproof." 
Obviously  all  structural  members  must  have  this  quality  before 


First  floor  plan,  residence  of  Wm.  G.  Mather,  Esq.,  Cleveland,  O. 
Charles  A.  Piatt,  architect 

the  edifice  may  be  given  such  an  appellation.  Partitions  which 
are  not  bearing-walls,  and  which  consequently  do  not  carry  any 
weight  but  their  own,  may  be,  and  are  advisedly,  built  of  some 
light  material  such  as  cinder  concrete,  hollow  tile  or  various 
other  non-inflanunable  products.  It  should  be  kept  in  mind  that 
terra  cotta  and  steel  must  be  thoroughly  protected  with  a  covering 
of  concrete  to  insure  stability  in  the  face  of  great  heat  and  a 
sudden  cooling  by  water. 

A  reinforced  monolithic  concrete  foundation,  made  without 
forms  and  with  a  metal  and  frame  superstructure  covered  with 
stucco,  has  been  erected  as  follows: 


FIRE-RESISTING    CONSTRUCTION 


65 


For  the  foundation  6-in.  expanded  metal  studs  were  placed 
14  in.  apart  and  stiff  metal  lath  wired  to  both  sides  of  the  studs. 
The  studs  were  braced  by  a  piece  of  2X4  in.  scanthng  driven 
into  the  ground  on  either  side  as  most  convenient.  The  outside 
surface  was  then  stuccoed  and  the  inside  plastered.  This  created 
a  hollow  form,  6  in.  wide,  which  was  filled  with  concrete,  making 
a  strong,  substantial  foundation  wall.  Above  ground  the  walls 
were  built  of  frame  construction,  except  that  in  place  of  wood 
all  posts  and  girts  were  formed  of  reinforced  concrete.  ^letal 
ribs  were  then  nailed  to  the  wood  studs  and  wire  lath  apphed 


Second  floor  plan,  residence  of  Wm.'G.  Mather,  Esq.,  Cleveland,  0. 
Charles  A.  Piatt,  architect 

in  the  usual  manner,  stuccoed  outside  and  back-plastered  inside 
so  as  to  bury  the  metal.  The  inside  face  of  the  studs  was  then 
lathed  with  metal  latli  and  j)lastered,  providing  an  air  space 
between  the  studs.  If  a  dense  mixture  is  used,  this  should  make 
a  diu'able  and  inexpensive  wall,  although  it  would  be  only  semi- 
fireproof. 

Fireproof  floor  construction  offers  a  wide  choice  of  materials 
with  a  variety  of  combinations.  Steel  beams  supporting  hollow 
terra  cotta  tile  arches  is  one  of  the  commonest  forms  emi)l()yed, 
though  it  is  often  a  more  costly  one  tliau  wiicre  beams  of  rein- 
forced concrete  are  used.  Concrete  tile  would  seem  to  I)e  a  better 
and  cheaper  substitute  for  terra  cotta,  from  the  fact  that  it 
requires  no  fireproof  covering  and  with  reinforced  concrete  beams 


G6 


CONCRETE   AXD    STUCCO   HOUSES 


makes  a  comparatively  cheap  floor.  A  thin  reinforced  concrete 
slab,  formed  between  concrete  girders,  makes  an  effective  floor 
when  covered  with  cinders ;  in  these  wooden  sleepers  are  buried  to 
afford  a  nailing  for  the  finished  wood  floor.  While  not  strictly 
fireproof,  a  seven-eighths-inch  oak  floor  so  laid  would  not  be  apt 
to  contribute  materially  to  a  blaze,  and  most  people  find  a  cement 
top  objectionable  as  "  cold  "  and  lacking  in  riclmess  and  refine- 
ment.   A  quarry  tile  floor,  laid  on  a  cinder  foundation,  makes  a 


^jj:^^^\^  rmsiK  yrup 

<awauTt  Tiu  6L0CIC 

<S,^s^'-« 

lfr> 

^\ 

-^^^^wjf 

>ncco — ■ 

\A 

\^  ^;<N5S<-  K"""^"  '''■"O* 

^ 

i^v\^^:;^!SvNo%i>i  /"""^  ^^'"' 

\^ 

•  ■^\^^-5^r?^^^^^s  ^'''■''''^* u/iiuTt 

fQ/tCJi£Tt    - 

><N 

yf .  •;  J^ 

^^^^~^^^^^(^\C\  ■^  X^^i~"^"'^ 

« 

1 

"y^ 

>5:::^^5^  '^ '^-vofw 

^^ 

Gdjuroecm:  jxas 

A  concrete  tile  block  wall  with  fireproof  floors.      Over  the  reinforced  con- 
crete beams,  tile  arches  and  wooden  sleepers  laid  in  concrete,  are  nailed  the 
finished  floor  boards 


handsome  and  absolutely  fireproof  finish,  and  a  liberal  sprinkling 
of  rugs  does  away  with  any  feeling  of  chilliness  in  its  appearance. 

To  overcome  the  cost  incident  to  the  construction  of  forms 
for  concrete  beams  and  floor  slabs  employed  in  fireproof  construc- 
tion, a  method  of  casting  these  structural  members  in  standard 
sizes  has  been  devised,  as  illustrated  in  the  accompanying  diagrams. 
The  concrete  floor  joists  and  slabs  are  made  and  delivered  by 
the  manufacturer,  and  set,  framed  and  finished  by  the  builder, 
without  the  use  of  wood  "  centering  "  (forms),  and  without  the 
necessity  of  mixing  the  concrete  on  the  site.  Where  finished  wood 
floors  are  desired,  wooden  sleepers  are  fastened  with  lag-screws  to 


I'tull.  arfhUt<l 


It.  Iiuilil  a  liiii|i<irai>   •.Iriulurr  ill  « liiili  i>n>lirily  has  nn  iiiliri->l  «lii-ii  a  la^liii){ 

iiiiiiiiiiiu'iit  iif  <'c|iial  litaiitv  limy  u.i  naililv  l>r  hail,  uiailil  iiiiliiiitr  lliat 

viitiinriit  hail  uvrrroiiir  )J"«hI  jiiil^'inrnl  ' 


FIRE-RESISTING    CONSTRUCTION  07 

the  concrete  joists  at  the  time  they  are  made,  forming  a  sohd 
and  rigid  naihng  strip  I'or  the  flooring.  After  the  joists  are  set 
in  place,  the  ceihng  slabs  are  laid  on  the  lower  beveled  llunges 
and  the  joint  grouted  with  cement  mortar.  The  floor  slab  is 
placed  in  a  similar  manner  on  the  top  flanges.  If  a  cement  floor 
is  desired  in  place  of  a  wooden  floor,  the  wooden  sleepers  may  he 
omitted  and  the  cement  finish  applied  directly  to  the  slab.  Where 
a  semi-fireproof  construction  only  is  desired,  the  conci'cte  floor 
slab  may  he  omitted.  Holes  are  left  in  the  webs  of  the  joist, 
both  to  facilitate  the  running  of  pipes  and  conduits  and  to  lighten 
the  construction  so  that  it  may  be  readily  handled  by  unskilled 
labor  without  the  use  of  derricks.  A  two-  by  ten-inch  joist  of  this 
character  weighs  about  twenty  pounds  a  lineal  foot,  and  for  ordi- 
nary spans  could  readily  be  handed  by  two  men.  The  deflec- 
tion of  a  concrete  beam  is  much  less  than  of  a  wooden  beam, 
consequently  the  ceiling  cracks  noticeable  in  most  buildings 
where  wood  beams  are  used,  are  absent  in  concrete  beam  con- 
struction. 

Technical  descriptions  of  the  various  forms  of  floor  construc- 
tion ajjplicable  to  fireproof  houses  would  not  be  apt  to  influence 
the  average  reader's  choice  one  way  or  the  other,  and  tliis  detail 
had  best  be  left  to  the  discretion  of  the  architect,  who  may  be 
trusted  to  select  a  method  of  construction  that  will  best  adapt 
itself  to  the  walls,  the  cost  and  the  desired  finish.  The  sketches 
inters])crsed  in  the  text  will  give  an  idea  of  the  many  types  now 
in  general  use. 

Reviewing  iVnierica's  contribution  to  domestic  architecture 
during  the  last  twenty  years,  gratifying  evidence  is  everywhere 
apparent  of  an  awakening  to  thr  practical  value  of  esthetics  hi 
the  design  of  the  home,  even  though  nuinerieally  the  buildings 
of  any  real  worth  are  not  abundant.  Rut  while  a  great  stride 
has  been  made  in  providing  for  tiie  comforts  and  conveniences 
of  the  family  and  its  employees,  ami  in  evolving  pleasing  tyi)es 


68  CONCRETE   AND    STUCCO   HOUSES 

of  architecture,  the  vital  question  of  durability  and  permanency 
of  structure,  the  idea  of  an  architecture  for  posterity,  has  not  yet 
aroused  any  general  enthusiasm,  and  beyond  an  occasional  ex- 
ample of  individual  foresight  we  are  still  building  temporary 
structures.  This  has  probably  been  due  more  to  the  "  iVmerican 
Idea  "  than  to  any  other  cause,  to  the  demand  for  quick  results, 
superficially  attractive  and  casting  a  spell  for  the  moment.  We 
live  and  change  too  rapidly  to  spend  any  serious  thought  on 
the  lasting  properties  of  our  wares.  But  we  are  growing  older 
and  wiser  each  year.  Already  the  age  of  concrete  is  upon  us 
and  the  da^vn  of  a  tomorrow  discloses  the  dim  outlines  of  mas- 
terly monuments  rising  from  the  decay  and  the  ashes  of 
yesterday. 


"'I'lir  Mifli'iiiii):  ll.lu■^  wliiili  ugf  will  K'^i'  '"  !>lui-it)  iiii|iri>V('  its  u|>|>i'ariiiux-" 


Reinforced  Concrete 


WHILE  it  is  obvious  that  constructive  materials  with  which 
we  have  greater  famiharity  will  contribute  to  the  realiza- 
tion of  a  native  architecture,  jet  a  great  hope  of  its 
early  fulfillment  seems  to  lie  in  the  use  of  reinforced  concrete. 
It  is  the  author's  purpose  in  this  and  the  following  chapters  to 
dwell  upon  the  part  which  this  medium  will  play,  to  outline  its 
main  characteristics  as  a  structural  factor,  and  to  point  out  its 
artistic  possibilities,  indicating  how  they  may  reach  a  liigher  plane 
of  rational  art. 

Truthful  expression  in  architecture  and  the  allied  arts,  as  in 
science  and  philosoj^hy,  is  essential  to  real  and  lasting  worth. 
Of  the  two  great  mediums  of  architectural  expression,  articulated 
and  plastic,  the  former,  owing  to  its  vital  beautj',  has  been  gen- 
erally employed  in  all  works  of  moment;  while  plastic  architec- 
ture, because  of  its  frail  and  transient  quality,  has  been  as  dili- 
gently avoided  except  in  structures  of  a  temporary  nature.  The 
present-day  custom  of  clotliing  naked  steel  with  masonry,  terra 
cotta  and  metal,  and  of  giving  to  wooden  buildings  a  veneer  of 
stucco  or  brick,  is  a  temporary  makeshift,  the  offense  of  which 
to  architectural  morality  may  be  partly  condoned  in  a  young 
and  growing  country  where  conmierce  and  trade  still  overshadow 
all  other  forms  of  development. 

The  advent  of  reinforced  concrete  brings  science  to  the  aid 
of  plastic  art,  insuring,  at  an  ever  lessening  cost,  greater  stability 
and  adaptability,  together  with  endless  opportunity  for  the  ex- 
pression of  form,  and  gives  consequent  promise  of  an  esthetic 
awakening  of  great  significance. 

It  is  hardly  surprising  that  concrete  has  not  as  yet  appealed 


70 


CONCRETE   AXD    STUCCO   HOUSES 


with  great  force  either  to  the  esthetic  or  economic  sense  of  the 
arcliitect  and  owner.  The  precedents  of  a  wood  and  stone  arclii- 
tecture  are  not  lightly  flung  aside,  and  translated  into  concrete 
often  become  both  far-fetched  and  costly.  An  avenue  to  the  most 
effective  use  of  concrete  in  residence  construction  is  being  sought 
through  the  medium  of  stucco,  which  has  recently  jumped  into  the 
front  rank  of  building  materials  susceptible  of  expressing  the 
requirement  of  domestic  architecture;    and  the  lessons  learned 


CMcetn 


NNnntD  noot 


ci/ioca  concstTt 


^iKCL  umr-otctMtHT 


A  reinforced  concrete  wall  covered  with  stucco.     The  floor  beams  and  sup- 
porting floor  both  show  the  method  of  reinforcement  with  steel  rods 

and  the  experience  gained  in  the  use  of  stucco  will  have  their 
beneficial  effect  in  suggesting  the  way  to  an  architecture  of  con- 
crete, where  design  will  be  exj^ressed  in  terms  of  the  material 
and  executed  at  a  reasonable  cost. 

Already  has  the  potentiality  of  a  molded  architecture  ar- 
rested and  stirred  the  pulse  of  both  the  laity  and  the 
profession. 

No  longer  need  the  architect  be  compelled  to  satisfy  in  day- 
dreams his  yearnings  for  legitimate  indulgence  in  plastic  and 
chromatic  art,  as  depicted  in  the  beautiful  but  transient  materials 
used  in  the  architecture  of  the  Orient,  for  fear  of  meriting  poster- 


REINFORCED    CONCRETE  71 

ity's  curse,  if  not  beholding  the  ruin  and  decay  of  his  handiwork 
within  the  bounds  of  a  hfetime.  With  science  at  the  hehn  and 
artistic  precedent  to  ilhiminate  the  way,  the  vast  possibihties  of 
reinforced  concrete,  both  in  its  structural  and  esthetic  jihases, 
cannot  be  measured. 

Who  can  say  that  from  the  interrelated  masses  of  aggregate, 
cement  and  steel,  a  new  and  true  architecture  shall  not  be  born, 
and  that  reinforced  concrete,  with  its  infinite  field  for  esthetic 
and  structural  develoioment,  is  not  the  long-sought  "  open 
sesame  "  to  the  goal  of  our  patriotic  architects,  the  American 
Style? 

Heretofore,  in  America,  adaptations  from  the  Greek  and 
Roman  styles,  and  the  various  forms  of  the  Renaissance,  whether 
in  truthful  ex^jression  of  function  or  not,  have  constituted  what- 
ever may  be  dignified  by  the  name  of  architecture.  We  are 
styled  "  copyists  "  not  without  reason,  although  it  would  be  un- 
just to  condemn  this  practice  out  of  hand,  for  after  all  it  is  in 
obedience  to  the  law  of  evolution. 

One  of  the  most  trying  commands  received  by  the  architect 
is  to  provide  something  "original";  something  odd  and  unlike 
what  his  neighbor  has.  This  desire  to  be  "  different  "  is  a  healthy 
one  and  highly  commendable,  if  not  carried  to  an  extreme.  But 
many  people  are  beginning  to  realize  that  to  hve  among  oddities 
is  tiring  to  the  eye  and  generally  disturbing.  Simple  forms  and 
harmonious  colors,  avoiding  the  conspicuous  and  the  glaring,  will 
generally  be  found  to  "  wear  well  "  and  be  tlie  most  productive 
of  real  enjoyment.  It  is  a  great  mistake  to  suppose  that  there 
is  no  intermediate  step  between  so-called  originality  (often  peril- 
ously near  to  vulgarity)  and  what  is  termed  commonplace.  Taste 
employed  in  the  modification  of  good  precedent  to  conform  to 
local  conditions  is  invariably  the  safest  course  to  pursue.  Rcauty 
of  color  and  cliastity  of  I'orm  find  a  ])arallcl  in  harmony  of  sonnd 
and  purity  of  tone.    Our  ears  are  generally  better  trauied  than 


72 


COXCRETE   AND    STUCCO   HOUSES 


our  eyes,  and  where  we  can  readily  distinguish  between  harmony 
and  discord  in  music,  we  often  fail  to  discover  incongruity  in 
form  and  color. 

Taste  is  the  product  of  personality  and  environment,  and  good 


— 

■' 

i 

1 

r". 

^ 

"T 

1 

1 

^ 

a 

_ 

"V 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

n  •  i/fOST  TOP  TLfiiiON  KOff  -t  Vin 

1 

}TUL  eOVJ  imNV  fiOT  Lt}i 

1 

THAN'  9 '  PMT  MfiMi 

"  1    "^ 

!>'  UA&  nuL nrm.  jroc- 

i      . 

r' 

'-r 

--r^ 

--i--*- 

=L 

n^^ 

u 

3; 

" 

1 

1 

PL 
1- 

ijf 

puciD  /'i/p  reoM  cifmRr/ft;  70  &i 

COMPUTUt  COViKCO  HITH  COUCeiTl 

2  pim.  dim  ^  noo2 

A  typical  framing  plan  to  show  the  disposition  and  sizes  of  the  steel  rods 
used  for  reinforcing  concrete  work  in  a  floor 

taste  is  merely  a  measure  of  local  standards.  The  Indian's 
wigwam  and  his  beaded  and  feathered  robe  may  conform  as  ac- 
curately to  the  precepts  of  good  taste  as  the  Englishman's  coun- 
try home  and  his  faultless  attire. 

While  there  is  no  doubt  that  much  of  the  slavish  adherence 


REINFORCED    CONCRETE  73 

to  the  lines  of  the  great  masters,  regardless  of  their  functional 
truth,  has  had  an  educational  value  of  large  import  in  a  country 
so  young  and  raw  as  ours,  in  shaping  a  predilection  and  taste  for 
artistic  refinement,  nevertheless  a  budding  tendency  toward  pic- 
turing the  purpose  and  functions  of  a  building  on  its  facade  is 
a  welcome  sign  of  a  return  to  the  verity  of  Grecian  and  Gothic 
art. 

The  signs  of  the  times  indicate  a  decided  advance  in  public  ap- 
preciation of  good  art  and  good  building.  To  be  assured  of  this 
we  need  only  point  a  finger  to  the  tardy  and  costly  remodeling 
which  the  City  of  New  York  is  now  undergoing.  In  but  a  few 
instances  is  the  change  retrogressive.  The  architect  should  feel 
exultant  at  the  prospect  before  him,  for  no  profession  offers  a 
wider  field  of  promise  than  is  opened  to  him  in  American  Archi- 
tecture. All  the  more  serious  becomes  liis  dutj'  to  cultivate  and 
guide  the  public  taste.  His  work,  unlike  that  of  most  other  pro- 
fessions, is  ever  "  in  the  public  eye  "  and  subject  to  daily  comment 
and  criticism.  It  stands  a  monument  to  virtue,  or  to  iniquity, 
open  to  praise  or  to  ridicule. 

]\Ien  in  other  walks  of  life  maj'  successfully  hide  their  failures. 
Even  the  engineer  may  temporarily  cloak  his  defective  structure 
with  the  architect's  mantle.  Endowed  with  such  powers  for  good 
and  for  evil,  there  rests  ui)on  the  architect  a  grave  responsibility, 
demanding  from  him  the  highest  form  of  mental  and  moral  equip- 
ment. Let  him  show  his  capacitj'  for  good  deeds,  let  him  prove 
his  worth,  and  the  public  can  be  trusted  to  give  him  place  in  the 
councils  of  the  Nation. 

The  introduction  of  new  appliances,  new  materials  or  new 
methods  is  usually  viewed  with  suspicion.  A  departure  from 
beaten  paths  is  generally  the  signal  to  the  sceptic  to  rush  for- 
ward with  denunciations  and  predictions  of  failure.  The  early 
history  of  reinforced  concrete  is  no  exception  to  this  rule.  It  was 
attacked  from  every  side  by  the  ignorant  and  condemned  on 


74 


COXCRETE    AND    STUCCO    HOUSES 


every  occasion  by  the  "  stand-patter."  Like  all  worthy  objects, 
however,  it  has  flourished  under  persecution,  until  now  it  is 
employed  to  advantage  in  nearly  every  branch  of  construction 
and  is  destined  to  revolutionize  architectural  forms  and  inaugurate 
a  new  era  of  building.  The  ojiponents  of  concrete,  who  have 
sought  to  retard  its  use,  have  been  obhged  to  yield  httle  by  httle 


-ops/f/m  ■ 


igODii'D/A. 
f  XOOi  i  'D/A. 


AZRANCLMtNT  0/  JTIU  HOP} 
ABOUT  WMDOWP  d  D00A3 


Architects  and  engineers  have  already  worked  out  trustworthy  details  for  the 
reinforcement  of  various  portions  of  the  building 

as  practical  demonstrations  proved  the  fallacj'  of  their  statements, 
imtil  in  desperation  they  rallied  to  the  cry  of  "  no  salvage."  The 
fact  that  a  concrete  building  could  not  be  "  ^vrecked  "  at  a  profit 
suggests  that  one  of  its  virtues  is  a  sense  of  humor!  Reinforced 
concrete  has  not  been  in  use  a  sufficiently  long  time  for  the  ques- 
tion of  salvage  to  be  estimated  with  accuracy,  but  the  recent  raz- 
ing of  a  reinforced  concrete  office  building  demonstrated  that 


KEIXFORCED   CONCRETE  75 

the  (lemolisliing  was  readily  accomplished  for  a  sum  less  tlian 
the  value  of  the  materials  regained.  So  it  is  evident  that  when 
such  a  building  has  lost  its  usefulness  it  does  not  become  a 
"  white  elephant."  Unsightl_y  appearance  is  about  all  there  is 
left  to  cite  against  this  much-maligned  material,  but  "  coming 
events  cast  their  shadows  before,"  and  the  end  of  what  appears 
to  be  a  campaign  dictated  by  fear  and  prejudice  is  heralded  by 
recent  achievements  in  texture  and  color. 

The  saying  that  "  fools  rush  in  where  angels  fear  to  tread," 
is  nowhere  better  exemplified  than  in  the  handling  and  treatment 
of  concrete  in  its  recent  chrysalis  stage.  ]\Iuch  has  already  been 
done  to  hinder  its  popular  growth.  Ignorant,  careless  or  fraudu- 
lent builders  have  caused  the  collapse  of  concrete  structures. 
A  mistaken  idea  that  it  is  a  cheap  material  has  led  to  the  erection 
of  numerous  buildings  of  structural  weakness  and  monstrous 
design. 

Then  again,  concrete  has  suffered  from  the  untempered  en- 
thusiasm of  too  hysterical  champions,  whose  unquahfied  claims 
as  to  its  fireproof,  damp-proof  and  other  excellent  qualities  have 
been  accepted  with  disappointing  if  not  disastrous  results. 

Finally,  we  come  to  perhaps  the  greatest  obstacle  in  the  way 
of  its  rapid  and  general  use:  How  to  give  reinforced  concrete 
a  truthful  as  well  as  a  pleasing  expression.  Let  us  first  of  all 
consider  its  physical  properties. 


Physical  Properties  of  Reinforced  Concrete 


THE  invention  of  reinforced  concrete  is  claimed  by  both 
England  and  France,  although  it  is  probable  that  the 
properties  derived  from  the  use  of  metal  in  conjunction 
with  a  very  ancient  form  of  construction  were  known  and  em- 
ployed in  bygone  ages.  A  clay  composition  reinforced  with  bam- 
boo has  been  used  in  the  houses  of  Russia,  Cliina  and  Japan. 
Reinforced  concrete  consists  of  a  definitely  proportioned  mixture 
of  aggregate,  cement  and  water,  with  the  introduction  of  iron 
or  steel,  placed  in  such  a  manner  as  to  take  up  those  stresses 
wliich  cannot  be  resisted  by  the  concrete  alone. 

It  has  been  urged  by  some  that  a  gradual  disintegration  of 
the  remforcement  is  inevitable,  but  wherever  oxidation  has  been 
found,  the  cause  was  invariably  traced  to  poor  material  or  work- 
manship. When  the  concrete  is  properly  mixed  and  thorouglily 
rammed  around  the  reinforcements,  a  firm  adliesion  results  be- 
tween the  cement  and  the  steel,  and  the  exclusion  of  oxygen  in 
air  or  water  prevents  rusting.  Wliile  its  most  familiar  use  is 
in  the  exterior  walls  of  buildings,  reinforced  concrete  is  applicable 
to  any  form  of  construction  with  compressive  and  tensile  strains 
usuallj-  employing  steel,  masonry  or  wood.  For  purely  utilitarian 
purposes  such  as  for  tanks,  vats,  water-mains,  reservoirs,  etc., 
it  has  been  found  an  excellent  medium  of  construction. 

As  the  resistance  of  concrete  to  rupture  increases  with  time, 
it  compares  favorably  with  steel  which  requires  constant  attention 
and  repeated  painting  to  prevent  rusting,  and  it  lias  the  advan- 
tage over  stone  and  brick  masonry  of  lightness  and  economy. 
Its  superiority  to  wooden  structures  is  in  many  respects  quite 
obvious.     Not  the  least  important  is  that  it  affords  no  harbor 


Uiyiii'tui    nf  fMni-l  /{■i."n,   /.-v.,     tr./W.> 


('^I(■<lM  f'    Hirin<f.  nr.fitint 


" Ut>u>!li-<iist  jifiil  |M'liliIi*-*ia.sli  fiiiisht's  .   .   .  jjivr  ii  vrry  plrasin^'  tfxtiin-   and  a  varialinn  in 
tours  tliiit  i>v«T(-(iini-s  thf  intitiittmiy  nf  a  |>t-rf<i-tly  siikmiIIi  and  iiiiifi)riii  siirfatt*" 


PHYSICAL    PROPERTIES    OF    CONCRETE     77 


for  microbes  or  vermin.  Structures  can  be  safely  built  in  less 
time  through  the  employment  of  reinforced  concrete  than  through 
the  use  of  any  other  material  or  combination  of  materials.  The 
fire-resisting  properties  of  reinforced  concrete  were  well  exhibited 
in  San  Francisco  during  the  greatest  conflagration  of  modern 
times.  Tests  have  been  made  in  which  high  temperatures  have 
been  withstood,  and  it  was  found  that  the  thickness  of  the  con- 
crete surrounding  the  steel  determines  its  heat-resisting  efficiency. 


^3noj  f 


First  floor  plan,  residence  of  Daniel  Bacon,  Esq.,  Ardsley-on-the-Hudson,  N.  Y. 
Oswald  C.  Hcring,  architect 

This  thickness  should  not  be  less  than  three-quarters  of  an  inch, 
and  where  it  is  })lanned  to  enclose  a  large  percentage  of  inflam- 
mable material,  tlie  reinforcement  should  have  at  least  a  two-inch 
covering  of  concrete. 

The  disadvantages  of  reinforced  concrete  are  few.  Probably 
the  greatest  handicap  in  its  use  up  to  the  present  time  has  been 
the  difficulty  in  securing  proper  materials  and  the  best  of  work- 
manship. While  unskilled  lal)or  may  be  employed,  it  is  neces- 
sary to  select  those  of  experience  in  the  making  and  handling  of 
concrete,  and  above  all,  an  intelligent  and  carefully  trained  fore- 


78 


CONCRETE   AKD    STUCCO   HOUSES 


man  must  be  constantly  in  charge  of  the  work,  giving  it  close 
attention  and  supervision.  The  custom  of  awarding  contracts 
to  the  lowest  bidder  may  bring  disastrous  results.  The  cost  would 
better  be  computed  by  a  competent  engineer  and  his  estimate 
accepted  by  the  owner  and  contractor,  who  should  agree  to  share 
any  actual  increase  or  decrease  in  cost  above  or  below  the  figures 
of  the  estimate.  The  temptation  to  "  skknp  "  by  a  not  over-con- 
scientious contractor  is  great,  as  detection  is  sometimes  difficult; 


Second  floor  plan,  residence  of  Daniel  Bacon,  Esq..  Ardsley-on-the-Hudson,  N.  Y. 
Oswald  C.  Hering,  architect 

consequently  only  men  of  well-knoA^Ti  integrity  and  experience 
should  be  employed. 

Owing  to  its  great  density,  concrete  does  not  readily  receive 
and  hold  nails  or  screws,  and  any  cutting  or  drilling  is  done  with 
great  difficulty  and  at  considerable  expense.  For  this  reason  the 
architect's  plans  should  indicate  the  location  of  phmibing  and 
heating  pipes  and  the  course  of  electric  conduits,  as  well  as  the 
position  of  door  and  window  trim,  wainscoting,  cornices,  or  any 
other  finished  woodwork,  so  that  all  chases  and  blockings  may 
be  provided  for  during  the  forming  of  the  walls  and  floors. 

One  of  the  least  desirable  properties  of  concrete  is  that  it 
readily  transmits  sound.  It  is  frequently  necessary  therefore 
to  employ  double  walls,  bonded  together  at  intervals,  forming 


■  A  ci-rtain  iimouiit 


iif  lili'mliiif;  variation  in  lorn-  is  pleasing  to 
|)i  rlVctiy  even  eolor  lacks  charaeter" 


't'j'-  'i...i,..  /I  ti^ 


"  I''runi  nn  artistie  st»n<l|><iint  perfe*'!  unifiirniit,v  <if  sliaile  in  stiittii  is  not  iwscntiul 

or  even  Jesirublf" 


PHYSICAL    PROPERTIES    OF    CONCRETE     79 

an  air  space  between,  and  for  non-bearing  partitions  it  would 
be  better  to  use  hollow  tile  blocks.  Over  the  floor  slabs  a  cover- 
ing of  cinders  is  advisable,  in  which  are  embedded  sleepers  of 
yellow  pine  to  receive  the  naiUng  for  a  wood  floor.  This  con- 
struction not  only  deadens  the  sound  between  stories,  but  gives 
space  for  the  running  of  pipes,  and  the  cinders  act  as  a  cushion 
which  overcomes  the  ol)jection  to  a  rigid  floor. 

Some  danger  is  incurred  by  the  use  of  concrete  in  freezing 
weather.  This  may  be  largely  overcome  by  salting  and  heating 
the  water,  heating  the  stone  and  sand,  and  by  covering  and  other- 
wise protecting  the  newly  finished  construction.  In  commercial 
work,  time  is  usually  an  important  element  in  calculating  the 
cost,  and  the  ease  and  rapidity  with  which  concrete  structures 
can  be  erected  during  inclement  weather  by  the  observance  of 
a  few  precautions,  should  make  the  use  of  concrete  popular  for 
buildings  of  this  character.  The  actual  extra  expense  occasioned 
by  the  protective  measures  to  be  described  will  be  far  less  to 
both  the  owner  and  the  contractor  than  were  the  work  delayed 
until  the  advent  of  warmer  days. 

Freezing  will  not  damage  concrete  that  has  had  an  oppor- 
tunity to  harden  under  favorable  conditions  for  from  twentj'- 
four  to  forty-eight  hours.  Freezing  after  this  period  merely  re- 
tards the  hardening  process.  Concrete  that  is  frozen  while  it 
is  still  green,  and  green  concrete  that  is  sul)jccted  to  alternate 
freezing  and  thawing,  is  very  liable  to  be  damaged.  It  is  cheaper 
and  simpler  to  lower  the  freezing  point  of  the  concrete  by  an 
admixture  of  salt,  than  to  lengthen  the  time  before  the  concrete 
becomes  cold  enough  to  freeze,  by  heating  the  materials.  The 
first  method  may  he  employed  without  danger  for  temperatures 
no  lower  than  22  degrees  Falircnhcit.  Not  more  than  ten  per  cent 
of  salt  shoidd  be  used,  and  while  it  will  retard  tlie  liardcning  and 
lower  the  initial  strength  of  the  concrete  the  ultimate  strength 
will  not  be  afl"cctcd.    For  lower  tcmi)eraturcs  the  materials  should 


80  CONCRETE   AXD    STUCCO   HOUSES 

be  heated  and  the  work  protected.  Heating  the  materials  acceler- 
ates the  rate  of  hardening  and  will  insure  the  setting  of  the  cement 
before  it  can  be  damaged  by  freezing,  provided  the  concrete  is 
promptly  mixed  and  placed  in  position,  and  protected  during  the 
first  few  da3's.  The  sand,  stone  and  water  should  be  heated, 
although  in  tliick  walls  it  is  not  necessary  to  heat  the  sand  if  it  is 
dry  and  free  from  frozen  lumps.  After  the  heated  mixture  has 
been  poured  into  the  forms,  the  exposed  surface  should  be  pro- 
tected with  canvas  and  steam-heated,  or  covered  with  boards  or 
building  paper,  upon  which  should  be  laid  a  thickness  of  twelve 
inches  of  manure  or  an  equally  heavy  covering  of  straw,  kept  dry. 
Manure  should  not  be  laid  directly  upon  the  concrete  or  the 
latter  will  be  stained.  Thin  walls,  columns,  beams  and  floor 
slabs  require  esj^ecial  care  and  protection,  and  salamanders 
should  be  employed  about  these  to  maintain  the  temperature  near 
freezing  or  above  that  point. 

Concrete  in  a  large  mass  is  the  least  expensive  and  the  most 
durable  and  watertight  of  any  form  of  masonry  construction. 
The  wooden  forms  required  to  hold  the  wet  mass  of  cement  and 
aggregate  until  it  hardens  into  concrete  do  not  constitute  a  large 
item  in  the  total  cost  of  the  wall  if  the  bulk  is  great  in  width, 
but  when  the  mass  narroAvs  down  to  ten  or  twelve  inches  in  width, 
as  in  the  walls  of  the  average  residence,  the  ratio  of  the  cost  of  the 
forms  to  the  small  amount  of  concrete  they  contain  is  very  great ; 
and  herein  lies  the  chief  reason  for  a  recent  tendency  to  abandon 
monolitliic  wall  construction  in  residences  of  moderate  cost.  The 
situation  is  not  without  its  humor  —  especially  to  the  carpenter. 

It  is  the  author's  opinion,  however,  that  this  cessation  is  only 
a  temporary  matter  and  that  before  long  some  method  of  perma- 
nent interchangeable  forms  will  be  devised,  possibly  of  metal 
(although  the  cost  and  particularly  the  weight  of  metal  forms 
mitigates  against  their  use),  but  more  probably  of  compressed 
paper  similar  to  "  compo  board,"  which  may  be  fashioned  to  a 


PPIYSICAL    PROPERTIES    OF    CONCRETE     81 

variety  of  sizes  and  shapes  suitable  for  the  usual  plain  surfaces 
and  window  and  door  ojjenings  of  all  residence  construction,  and 
which  can  be  kept  in  stock  by  the  building  contractor  for  use  on 
more  than  one  occasion.  JNIonolithic  walls  are  not  alone  a  truthful 
form  of  construction,  but  they  present  a  fascinating  field  for  the 
development  of  color  and  texture,  and  these  virtues  will  no  doubt 
find  a  means  of  expression  within  reasonable  cost  in  view  of  the 
fact  that  the  composition  itself  is  simple  and  inexpensive. 

Hair-cracks,  often  noticed  on  the  face  of  a  concrete  wall,  do 
not  indicate  a  structural  weakness  of  the  wall.  This  surface 
crazing  occurs  only  in  a  wet  mixture  rich  in  cement  that  has  been 
allowed  to  dry  too  quickly.  Dry  concrete,  being  porous,  and 
therefore  defective  in  structure,  is  far  more  objectionable  than 
a  dense  and  waterproof  mixture  which  may  show  superficial  hair- 
cracks.  Experiments  have  shown  clearly  that  these  cracks  are 
produced  by  the  contraction  of  the  cement,  the  finer  particles  of 
which  are  carried  to  the  surface  of  the  wall  and  deposited  there 
by  the  excess  water  which  is  absorbed  in  the  process  of  evapora- 
tion, leaving  a  film  of  neat  cement.  These  hair-cracks  are  more 
apparent  on  a  smooth  surface  than  a  rough  surface,  and  may  be 
overcome  only  by  keeping  the  surface  of  the  "  green  "  wall  wet, 
and  protecting  it  with  wet  cloths  from  Annd  and  sun  until  the 
concrete  has  become  thorougiily  hardened.  Experiments  have 
also  been  made  in  mixing  mineral  oils  with  the  wet  concrete 
(ai)out  ten  per  cent  of  the  weight  of  the  cement)  which  indicate 
that  the  oil  holds  the  excess  water  in  the  concrete,  keeping  the 
cement  moist  until  the  concrete  becomes  hard.  As  the  period  of 
evaporation  has  then  passed,  no  contraction  and  consequent  hair- 
cracks  ai)pear  to  occur. 

We  find,  tlicrcforc,  that  the  chief  characteristics  of  reinforced 
concrete  are  a  slenderness  in  structure  combined  with  ffreat  re- 
sistance  to  tensile  stress.  Concrete  can  be  easily  and  rapidly 
manipulated;  it  is  less  expensive  than  either  clothed  steel  or  ma- 


82  CONCRETE    AND    STUCCO    HOUSES 

sonry  construction  alone;  it  does  not  deteriorate  with  time,  and 
it  is  practically  fire  and  water  proof.  It  grows  in  strength  for  a 
considerable  length  of  time  and,  after  having  attained  its  ultimate 
strength,  it  never  weakens.  Consequently  by  its  use,  lighter, 
cheaper  and  more  durable  structures  may  be  erected  than  with 
any  other  kno«ni  materials. 

Lacking,  as  heretofore  employed,  texture  and  agreeable  color, 
concrete  yet  possesses  a  great  facility  for  being  shaped  and 
molded,  and  its  durability  is  unquestioned  when  carefully  and 
properly  made.  With  tliis  general  view  of  the  structural  proper- 
ties of  reinforced  concrete,  let  us  pass  to  the  consideration  of  its 
esthetic  possibilities. 


Hr^Ulrnet  V'  Mr.  Jikin,»  Urttnl  forb*.*.  A.Jtf..  iHtttT.   .Wdu. 


Jamrx  t'urdan,  archUfCt 


'V\n'  Uivi  Ihut  his  lions*'  will  stiiy  put   for  cmturiis  tliMs  not   mUrrsI  Ilir  AnifHran  a,s  kt*»-iil\ 
lis  tlors  (III-  it.-Mirancf  thai' it   will  not  »Iisii|H;ir  ..\<r  in  Jit   \\'\\\i  all  hi>  triit>nrr>" 


Esthetic  Possibilities  of  Reinforced  Concrete 


THE  momentous  progress  made  during  the  last  fifty  years 
towards  a  broader  and  more  comprehensive  view  of  hfe, 
most  clearly  shown  by  the  advance  made  in  an  industrial 
activity,  in  religious  thought  and  in  philanthropy,  is  largely  due 
to  scientific  research  and  to  a  wider  application  of  natural  laws 
proving  the  falsity  of  many  hitherto  accepted  traditions.  The 
mind  of  the  modern  man  has  grown  more  anah-tical  and  his 
hunger  for  facts  and  thirst  for  truth  have  become  well-nigh  in- 
satiable. This  agitation  has  found  only  a  faint  echo  in  the  Fine 
Arts,  except  in  music,  where  evei'pvhere  the  influence  of  Wag- 
ner's genius  is  now  heard.  In  painting  and  sculpture,  and  to 
a  lesser  degree  in  literature  and  architecture,  this  revolutionary 
spirit  has  been  felt,  but  as  yet  has  exhibited  no  startlingly  novel 
expression  of  real  worth.  The  glare  of  "  Impressionism,"  which 
twenty  years  ago  lit  the  skies  in  the  world  of  painting,  has  paled 
into  the  subdued  light  of  dying  embers.  Enthusiastic  exponents 
of  L'Art  Xouveau  in  architecture  and  the  allied  Fine  Arts  are 
extant,  but  their  influence  apj)ears  to  grow  less  each  day  as  their 
irrational  products  are  viewed  in  the  light  of  the  laws  of  universal 
progress.  In  literature,  the  meager  cult  descendant  from  Walt 
Wliitman's  "  individualism "  illustrates  well  the  folly  of  the 
revolutionist's  single-handed  attempt  to  achieve  victory  with  the 
bomb. 

In  this  vast  onward  movement  tlic  best  results  have  always 
been  obtained  wlicre  there  has  been  the  closest  adherence  to  sci- 
entific truths  and  a  gradual,  rather  than  abrupt,  niodirication  of 
existing  customs  to  suit  the  new  conditions.  The  nature  of 
American  civilization  is  not  so  much  at  variance  with  that  of 


84  CONCRETE   AND    STUCCO    HOUSES 

Europe,  that  it  invites  an  "  indigenous  "  architecture  in  the  sense 
that  all  precedent  should  be  thrown  to  the  winds. 

There  is  unfortunately  a  tendency  to  propound  this  doctrine 
in  certain  districts  of  the  jNIiddle  ^Vest,  where  products  of  archi- 
tectural socialism  rival  some  of  the  grotesque  forms  of  the  Ger- 
man Jugend  Stil.  A  pecuhar  argument  in  favor  of  this  "  in- 
digenous "  style  is  that  it  may  be  adapted  to  the  "  temperament  " 
of  the  client!  As  is  well  known,  most  of  our  clients  —  indeed 
close  to  a  hundred  per  cent  of  them  —  have  had  no  specific  archi- 
tectural education.  Is  a  man's  inexperience  to  be  blazoned  on 
the  walls  of  his  domicile  to  invite  the  world's  ridicule?  Is  it  not 
evident  that  the  type  of  architecture  derived  from  individual 
"  temperament "  would  either  resemble  the  vagaries  erected  by 
the  self-qualified  layman,  or  would  clearly  portray  the  idiosyn- 
crasies of  the  architect? 

The  styles  of  one  century  are  readily  traced  to  those  of  the 
century  before,  and  in  the  best  examples  we  find  them  modified 
to  suit  the  changed  conditions  of  new  environment,  with  new 
forms  added  wherever  new  functions  made  their  creation  a  neces- 
sity. Whatever  history  we  Americans  have  is  of  comparatively 
recent  origin,  and  a  proper  pride  in  native  ancestry,  in  national 
blood,  and  indigenous  types  and  styles,  is  largely  a  matter  of 
future  privilege.  There  is  one  period  in  our  young  life,  however, 
which  ranks  in  importance  with  some  of  the  Old  World  eras, 
and  marks  a  conspicuous  milestone  in  the  progress  and  develop- 
ment of  native  art.  The  "  Colonial  Period,"  as  it  is  called,  is  the 
foundation  upon  which  we  largely  build,  and  it  constitutes  our 
main  supply  of  available  "  precedent,"  that  valued  fund  from 
which  we  draw,  sometimes  too  prodigally,  it  is  true,  but  from 
which,  if  discretion  and  intelligence  are  obsen^ed,  the  happiest 
results  are  obtained  by  adapting  and  modifjang  the  characteris- 
tics of  this  attractive  style  to  meet  new  needs  and  to  fit  new 
environments.    To  supply  certain  comforts  and  luxuries  wholly 


kftdtrut   "f  /.     U     Sttinur,   A<y  .  Humrx  •■■■■! .   Ill 


\\n,'vnn'  .\    A. ;/.'•'€.  tiTchUrcli 


'*(Viitif  ami  wlinlly  iilililarian  »l  tin-  iM^riniiin^:.  <nncTrU-  arrhilt-iliin-  will  ^;ni«iuall> 
a(-(|titrr  rrtinriiu'iil  aiul  nihility  from  the  tr;nhiiif;N  of  iviMTii'iut''* 


ESTHETIC    POSSIBILITIES    OF    CONCRETE    85 

unknown  to  our  New  England  and  Virginian  forefathers,  there 
has  been  a  tendency  of  late  to  shape  the  Colonial  stj'les  along  the 
lines  of  the  French  and  Italian  villa,  making  possible  a  harmo- 
nious product  combining  the  best  features  of  these  styles.  In 
some  instances  brick,  but  more  often  stucco,  has  been  the  medium 
of  expression  employed  by  the  architect  in  this  evolutionary 
process.  That  he  will  find  concrete  more  fit  than  either  brick 
or  stucco  to  carry  his  ideas  to  a  logical  conclusion  is  only  a  matter 
of  better  acquaintance  with  this  promising  material.  Concrete 
adapts  itself  readily  to  a  simple  dignified  architecture  designed 
to  include  those  comforts  and  conveniences  that  have  come  to  be 
associated  more  or  less  with  every  xVmcrican  home.  While  our 
landscape  may  not  closely  resemble  the  particular  environments 
of  Europe  wherein  stucco  and  terra  cotta  abound,  it  is  a  fact 
that  a  plastic  architecture  accommodates  itself  to  almost  any  sec- 
tion of  our  extended  possessions,  whether  on  the  banks  of  the 
Hudson,  the  shores  of  Maine  or  Long  Island,  the  plains  of  Kan- 
sas or  the  foothills  of  the  Sierras.  Conci'cte  lends  its  color  and 
texture  to  the  beautifying  of  almost  any  class  of  habitation, 
whether  villa,  cottage  or  bungalow. 

The  path  to  a  sane  American  Architecture  will  follow  the 
general  indications  of  the  past  and  the  present,  and  those  who 
desire  to  win  the  first  laurels  will  proceed  along  the  rational  line 
of  a  gradual  and  intelligent  development  of  the  forms  with  which 
we  are  already  acquainted,  but  reshaping  them  to  conform  to  the 
ever  advancing  knowledge  of  the  many  external  and  internal 
forces  acting  upon  the  structure,  portraying  its  purpose  as  a 
whole  and  in  all  of  its  parts  and  placing  it  in  harmony  with  its 
environment,  the  landscape,  the  ncighl)oring  structures  and  the 
spirit  of  the  inhabitants. 

The  inh^ent  properties  of  concrete,  together  with  the  cost, 
forbid  its  use  along  the  lines  of  a  wood  or  stone  architecture. 
Cornices,  string  courses  and  elaborate  ornamentation  in  concrete 


86  COXCRETE   AND    STUCCO    HOUSES 

are  unreasonable  and  expensive.  Simplicity  in  form  is  the  domi- 
nating feature  in  concrete,  and  it  will  find  its  best  expression 
as  a  background  for  concentrated  ornament  in  brick  and  tile,  or 
in  the  polychromatic  effects  of  its  aggregate.  This  compulsory 
treatment  will  no  doubt  evolve  new  forms  and  methods  of  con- 
struction and  decoration  sufficient  to  establish  an  individual  style 
of  arcliitecture,  linked  only  to  those  of  the  present  and  past  by 
the  conservatism  of  good  art  which  knows  no  more  violent  change 
than  is  reflected  in  the  life  of  the  people.  There  are  a  nimiber 
of  styles  which  lend  themselves  to  the  treatment  described,  in- 
cluding most  of  those  in  which  stucco  has  played  a  part,  so  that 
there  need  be  no  occasion  for  breaking  away  from  all  i^recedent 
desjjite  the  fact  that  many  structural  and  ornamental  devices 
which  the  architect  has  been  accustomed  to  emj)loy  are  prohibited 
by  the  essentials  of  a  plastic  material. 

The  structural  problems  that  confront  the  architect  in  the 
use  of  concrete  as  applied  to  domestic  architecture  have,  gener- 
ally speaking,  been  solved.  The  stability  of  walls  and  partitions, 
the  carrying  capacity  of  floors  and  the  spanning  of  openings, 
are  matters  readily  determined.  There  are  no  structural  terrors 
for  the  designer  who  understands  the  capabilities  and  limitations 
of  his  material.  But  this  cannot  be  said  of  the  surface  treatment 
and  finish  of  concrete.  No  structural  unit  or  combination  of 
units  can  equal  in  ugliness  a  concrete  wall  from  which  the  forms 
have  been  stripped.  This  ding}',  streaked  and  pitted  mass,  cold 
and  lifeless,  is  too  somber,  too  lacking  in  color  and  refinement 
to  have  any  esthetic  value.  The  architect  has  joined  hands  with 
the  owner  in  a  common  prejudice  against  structures  of  monoto- 
nous gray  which  is  the  predominating  color  enforced  by  the  use 
of  Portland  cement.  To  overcome  these  superficial  defects  is 
the  chief  problem  that  is  bothering  the  designer  in  concrete  at 
the  present  day.  Color  and  texture  must  be  obtained  by  mask- 
ing or  unmasking  this  repellent  countenance. 


■'A 


^  ^ 


?v 


ESTHETIC    POSSIBILITIES    OF    CO^XRETE    87 

The  first  steps  in  this  direction  took  the  form  of  re-facing 
the  crude  wall  with  a  paint  or  wash,  and  when  this  was  found 
to  give  a  flat,  smeared  and  sickly  surface,  a  coating  of  stucco 
was  applied.  Probably  the  best  success  in  this  method  of  resur- 
facing concrete  has  been  obtained  by  pebble-dashing  the  walls, 
leaving  the  molded  courses,  such  as  bands,  architraves,  panels, 
and  pilasters,  to  be  finished  smooth.  In  tliis  way  there  is 
achieved  a  pleasing  variety  of  texture  and  a  contrast  in  light 
and  shade. 

There  are  several  methods  of  surface  treatment  that  have 
been  employed  with  sufficient  success  to  produce  an  interesting 
architecture  and  to  suggest  an  avenue  for  study  and  develop- 
ment. Veneering  or  plastering  the  rough  concrete  wall  with 
stucco  is  the  most  popular  treatment  to-day,  though  the  tendency 
is  towards  a  more  truthful  expression  of  the  material  evidenced 
by  hanmiering  and  other  methods  of  dressing  and  tooling,  to  give 
texture  to  the  surface,  and  in  the  removing  of  the  superficial 
cement  by  brushing  or  scrubbing  the  surface  with  water,  or  etch- 
ing with  acid,  and  so  expose  and  brighten  the  aggregate.  The 
method  of  using  a  colored  aggregate  is  to  be  commended  as  com- 
bining both  truth  and  beauty,  but  care  should  be  taken  not  to 
bring  it  into  such  great  relief  as  to  leave  the  interstices  open  to 
the  action  of  atmospheric  forces,  or  the  danger  of  damp  walls 
becomes  imminent,  not  to  speak  of  a  gradual  disintegration  of 
the  wall. 

Surfacing  the  wall  while  in  the  form  can  be  done  with  the 
use  of  a  false  partition  of  sheet  iron  or  steel  held  in  place  (after 
the  wood  form  is  erected )  an  inch  away  from  the  rough  wall  and 
the  space  between  filled  with  the  finishing  mixture.  This  op- 
eration is  carried  on  at  the  same  time  tliat  the  wall  is  being 
formed.  Upon  removing  the  metal  partition  before  either  mix- 
ture has  set,  the  facing  adheres  to  the  wall.  Another  method 
of  achieving  the  same  result  is  in  spading  the  concrete  back  from 


88  CONCRETE    AND    STUCCO    HOUSES 

the  front  of  the  forms  and  introducing  the  finishing  mixture 
wliich  at  once  unites  with  the  concrete  backing.  These  finishing 
mixtures  may  be  of  plain  or  colored  cement  mortar,  or  composed 
of  cement  and  aggregates  of  broken  stones,  brick  or  gravel,  de- 
pending on  the  color  and  texture  desired.  After  the  forms  are 
taken  off,  however,  the  joint  marks  of  the  boards  and  the  im- 
press of  the  grain  of  the  wood  will  be  retained  on  the  surface 
of  the  wall  and  these  disfigurements  must  be  removed  before 
an  acceptable  finish  is  obtained.  This  is  accomi:)lished  in  several 
ways.  The  outer  film  of  cement  is  brushed  or  scrubbed  from 
the  surface,  exposing  the  aggregate  of  which  an  assortment, 
pleasing  in  color  and  well  proportioned  in  size,  has  either  been 
distributed  tlirough  the  concrete  or  brought  to  the  surface  by 
either  of  the  two  means  described.  The  brushing  or  scrubbing 
process  must  be  undertaken  within  twenty-four  hours  of  the 
time  the  concrete  is  poured  into  the  forms,  and  while  the  con- 
crete is  still  green.  For  this  reason  the  new  wall  cannot  be  car- 
ried at  one  operation  to  any  considerable  height  or  the  load  of 
its  o'rni  weight  would  cause  the  wall  to  collapse.  The  scrubbing, 
which  is  done  with  an  ordinary  scrubbing  brush  and  clear  water, 
cleans  the  wall  of  the  cement  film  which  covers  the  surface  of 
the  concrete  and  throws  the  aggregates  —  the  sand,  gravel  or 
crushed  stone  —  into  slight  rehef ,  producing  a  semi-rough  sur- 
face of  multicolored  concrete.  If  for  any  reason  the  forms  can- 
not be  taken  down  until  the  cement  has  set  and  has  become  so 
hard  that  it  will  not  come  off  by  scrubbing,  either  with  a  bristle 
or  wire  brush,  some  method  of  tooling  the  surface  may  be  em- 
ployed, but  the  implements  used  should  be  of  a  kind  designed 
for  tliis  purpose.  Bush-hammering,  picking  and  sand  blasting  are 
methods  employed  upon  concrete  that  has  hardened  and  from 
which  the  cement  film  cannot  otherwise  be  removed,  but  these 
treatments  are  not  to  be  recommended  unless  skillfully  done,  as 
the  aggregate  is  disturbed  by  indiscriminate  hammering,  and 


ESTHETIC   POSSIBILITIES    OF   CONCRETE    89 

sand  blasting,  unless  done  with  rare  intelligence,  cuts  too  deep 
on  the  soft  spots  and  not  deep  enough  where  the  composition 
is  harder. 

In  erecting  a  wall  of  concrete  to  be  scrubbed,  it  is  usual  to 
pour  into  the  form  not  more  than  two  or  three  feet  of  concrete 
at  a  time,  removing  the  forms  as  soon  as  the  concrete  is  stiff 
enough  to  carry  its  weight.  The  top  surface  should  be  kept 
clean  in  order  that  it  may  form  a  good  bond  with  the  next  course, 
and  any  surface  stains  removed  at  the  end  of  each  day's  work 
by  washing  the  wall  with  water  played  upon  it  by  a  hose.  After 
the  building  has  been  completed  the  entire  wall  surface  should 
be  washed  with  a  solution  of  not  more  than  one  part  muriatic  acid 
to  five  parts  water.  This  will  brighten  up  the  aggregate  and  bring 
out  the  colors.  A  stronger  solution  of  acid  will  stain  the  sur- 
face with  yellow  streaks.  Various  other  methods  are  employed 
to  produce  a  pleasing  finish  to  a  concrete  wall,  depending  on 
the  character  of  the  work  desired. 

It  is  a  mistake  to  assimie,  as  has  been  done,  that  concrete  is 
too  coarse  and  crude  a  material  for  use  in  obtaining  and  express- 
ing refinements  of  finish  demanded  in  the  facade  of  a  building 
having  architectural  pretensions.  There  would  seem  to  be  no 
limit  to  the  delicacy  in  color  and  texture  to  be  obtained,  and  while 
simplicity  of  form  is  a  characteristic  of  concrete  that  cannot  be 
ignored,  the  range  of  possible  color  and  variety  of  texture, 
together  with  the  ease  with  which  it  lends  itself  to  the  modeler's 
art,  gives  to  concrete  a  promise  of  use  in  work  of  the  utmost  re- 
finement. Colored  sands  may  be  rolled  into  the  surface  of  wet 
concrete,  producing  very  i)lcasing  effects  where  a  smooth  surface 
is  desired.  A  ceiling  may  receive  this  colored  sand  finish  by 
plastering  the  bottom  of  the  form  with  wet  clay,  to  cover  up 
the  board  marks.  The  upper  surface  of  the  clay  is  then  s])rinkled 
with  the  colored  sand  and  the  concrete  poured  in  and  well  puddled 
and  lamped.    After  the  ceiling  slab  has  hardened  and  the  forms 


90  CONCRETE   AND   STUCCO   HOUSES 

have  been  removed,  the  clay  is  washed  off,  leaving  the  sand 
adliering  as  a  face  to  the  concrete  slab. 

A  perfectly  even  color  on  the  face  of  a  concrete  wall  of  any 
appreciable  size  is  most  difficult  to  obtain,  and  tliis  fact  alone 
has  led  many  architects  and  o^vne^s  to  favor  the  use  of  some 
other  building  material.  This  question  of  monotone  color  in 
stucco  has  already  been  answered,  and  the  same  argument  is 
applicable  to  concrete.  While  it  is  true  that  a  badly  built  and 
improperly  designed  wall  will  become  blotched  and  streaked  in 
an  unsightly  manner,  a  certain  amount  of  variation  in  color  is 
essential  rather  than  a  handicap  to  the  interest  and  beauty  of 
the  wall.  The  glory  of  brick  and  marble  lies  in  the  subtle  color- 
ing acquired  with  age,  the  gift  of  Time  and  its  chemical  agents. 
The  modest  shingle  owes  its  sole  claim  to  beauty  from  its  prop- 
erty of  weathering  a  demure  gray,  and  to  a  slight  deposit  of 
dust  and  grime  is  due  a  large  part  of  the  "  character  "  of  Colo- 
nial columns  and  clapboards.  Nature  is  the  cleverest  of  all  beau- 
tifiers  and  she  may  generally  be  trusted  to  enhance  rather  than 
despoil  the  beauty  of  any  building  worthy  of  her  attention. 
Blemishes  turn  into  beauty  spots  and  discolorations  become  pic- 
turesque blendings  of  harmonious  tones. 

The  author  recalls  a  pebble-dashed  house  in  Germantown, 
Pa.,  where  through  some  misunderstanding  the  walls  were  tinted 
a  vivid  yellow.  The  owner  turned  a  shade  of  purple  when  she 
beheld  it  and  commanded  forthwith  that  a  coat  of  white  be  ap- 
plied. Since  then  Dame  Nature  took  a  hand  and  washed  the 
white  from  the  projecting  pebbles,  leaving  the  recessed  pockets 
to  acquire  a  film  of  dust.  A  sparkling  and  mottled  yellow,  white 
and  gray  effect  has  consequently  been  obtained  that  never  would 
have  been  possible  in  a  one-tone  mixture  or  with  paint.  It  is  con- 
ceivable that  the  owner  should  thoughtlessly  apply  the  same  rules 
for  the  treatment  outside  as  inside,  but  that  the  architect  should 
raise  any  objection  to  a  harmonious  variation  in  color  of  a 


■'<  »»iiiTclr  ;iil;i[>l.s  itx-lf  rr;ulily  ti»  a  >impl<-  tii^'uiliril  arcliitrc  t  iirc  ' 


'  \  iiir^  rrlirvr  tlic  iiiouutoiiy  of  all  f\|mUM-  of  wall  aiul  M»ftfii  it.s  rif^ul  liii«-> 


*' A  lii^li  decree  of  skill  is  re(juirr(l  in  castini*  conrrete  for  stops,  sills,  copings, 
balustrades  and  the  like,  employed  as  exterior  meniliers  in  plare  of  stone" 


"Patching  of  stucco  and  concrete  cannot  be  done  after  the  cement  has  set, 

without  pntducinj:  a  ditfcn-nrr  In  color" 


ESTHETIC    POSSIBILITIES    OF    COXCRETE    91 

stucco  or  concrete  wall  and  demand  with  the  o^vner  that  it  be 
spick  and  span  is  not  so  readily  understood. 

The  successful  development  of  the  monolitWc  form  of  con- 
crete depends  largely  upon  the  taste  and  care  displayed  in  choos- 
ing the  aggregates.  These  sliould  be  composed  of  various  mate- 
rials selected  for  color  and  texture  and  graded  into  not  less  than 
three  sizes,  from  Avhich  the  superficial  cement  is  washed  after 
the  forms  have  been  removed  and  wliile  the  walls  are  yet  green. 
It  would  seem  that  the  use  of  a  polished  surface  clamped  to  the 
inside  of  the  wood  form,  if  not  indeed  constituting  in  itself 
tlie  form,  would  insure  damp-proof  qualities  in  a  wall  of  this 
character. 

Pouring  in  the  mixture  wet  to  the  consistency  of  a  jelly  and 
working  the  mass  with  thin  rods,  the  smooth  surface  of  the  en- 
closure would  tend  to  close  the  pores  and  give  a  similarly  pol- 
ished surface  to  the  concrete.  On  removing  the  forms  before  the 
concrete  could  become  too  hard,  and  washing  off  the  cement  with 
clean  water  or  dilute  acid,  a  smooth  surface  would  be  left,  re- 
sembling the  familiar  terrazzo  floor,  showing  the  colored  aggre- 
gate but  avoiding  any  interstices  which  would  offer  an  entrance 
to  moisture.  Provision  for  jjolychromatic  decoration  could  be 
made  by  leaving  planks  in  the  walls,  if  the  decorative  matter  is 
not  actuall}'  placed  in  position  during  the  forming  of  the  wall. 

It  should  be  borne  in  mind  that  a  sudden  and  complete  solu- 
tion of  a  problem  so  vast  and  diversified  in  character  is  beyond 
any  possibility.  Step  by  step  in  the  natural  course  of  evolution, 
with  patience,  care  and  study,  the  present  difficulties  will  be 
overcome. 

The  nearest  field  for  exploiting  reinforced  concrete  would 
seem  to  be  in  domestic  architecture,  and  in  certain  types  of 
buildings  of  no  great  altitude.  For  residences,  particularly  in 
country  and  suburl)an  localities,  concrete  has  already  become  an 
active  rival  to  wood  and  masonry,  particularly  where  facilities 


92  CONCRETE   AND    STUCCO   HOUSES 

for  fighting  fires  are  inadequate.  These  earlj'  examples  have 
shown  a  marked  tendency  to  imitate  closely  the  lines  and  forms 
of  the  old  ]Mission  style  —  a  false  note  at  the  verj'  start,  in  that 
this  type  was  a  product  of  an  enviroimient  of  crude  material  and 
unskilled  labor.  Entirely  different  conditions  exist  to-day.  The 
prevalent  idea  that  beauty  and  refinement  of  form  must  be  for- 
eign to  such  an  unprepossessing  material  as  concrete  is  wholly 
erroneous.  The  most  tender  molding  of  mass  and  form  along 
graceful  and  harmonious  lines  is  merely  a  matter  of  clever  design 
and  deft  manipulation. 

The  anatomical  structure  of  a  reinforced  concrete  building 
is  properly  expressed  in  its  piers  and  lintels.  Its  chief  factors 
are  slender  vertical  sujiports  and  horizontal  beams  of  great  sjian 
formed  in  one  continuous  mass.  The  spaces  between  piers  and 
beams  are  filled  respectively  with  curtain  walls  and  thin  slabs. 
As  the  eye  is  not  yet  accustomed  to  such  long  spans,  an  impres- 
sion of  weakness  is  given  that  should  be  overcome  by  placing 
consoles  or  brackets  at  the  union  of  pier  and  beam,  or  by  arch- 
ing the  beam  at  this  juncture.  Similarly,  as  an  impression  of 
leanness  and  frailty  might  be  obtained  from  the  great  distance 
between  piers,  from  the  shallow  reveals  of  the  openings  and  thin 
lines  of  shadow,  an  appearance  of  stability  and  vigor  can  be 
obtained  by  ornamentation,  either  sculj^tured,  modeled,  or  in- 
crusted,  grouped  or  massed  at  sahent  points. 

Granting  the  necessity  for  economic  reasons  of  employing  the 
gray  cements  in  use  at  the  present  time,  this  neutral  field  yet 
forms  an  excellent  foil  to  a  carefully  proportioned  allowance  of 
color  from  the  application  of  tiles,  mosaics,  terra  cotta,  brick  or 
sculptured  stone,  in  the  shape  of  panels,  bands  and  friezes,  as 
borders  to  the  openings,  and  in  all-over  patterns  on  such  surfaces 
as  may  occur  between  the  main  structural  factors.  There  is 
nothing  novel  in  the  use  of  inlaid  tile  as  a  decorative  treatment, 
as  the  architecture  of  Spain,  Italy  and  the  Orient  will  bear  wit- 


ESTHETIC    POSSIBILITIES    OF    CONCRETE    93 

ness.  It  points  a  way,  however,  to  the  further  embellishment 
of  concrete,  and  while  there  is  no  reason  to  believe  that  works 
of  the  greatest  arcliitectural  grandeur  and  splendor  may  not  be 
achieved  at  some  future  time  when  concrete  is  as  well  under- 
stood as  marble,  the  present  experimental  stage  may  be  expected 
to  produce  a  liberal  sprinkhng  of  unsatisfactory  examples. 

For  rustic  and  informal  uses,  rich  and  highlj'^  interesting 
effects  are  produced  by  the  use  of  small,  irregidar,  unglazed  tiles 
embedded  in  the  concrete  not  only  in  geometrical  patterns  but 
grouped  in  a  manner  to  form  pictorial  representations.  These 
tiles  may  be  secured  in  the  forms  and  held  by  the  concrete  after 
it  is  poured  in,  or  they  may  be  cast  in  slabs  of  concrete  and  placed 
in  recesses  left  in  the  wall  after  the  forms  are  removed. 

If  unglazed  tiles  are  used,  the  face  of  the  tiles  should  be  oiled 
and  their  backs  soaked  in  water  before  embedding  them  in  the 
mortar.  The  back  of  a  tile  should  never  be  oiled  or  it  will  lose 
its  porosity  and  power  of  adhesion.  Oiling  the  face  of  the  tile 
prevents  it  from  being  stained  by  efflorescence  from  the  mortar 
in  which  the  tile  is  laid.  A  glazed  tile  need  not  and  should  not 
be  oiled,  as  no  such  action  can  penetrate  a  glazed  surface.  The 
tile  may  also  be  protected  from  surface  staining  from  the  wet 
cement  by  placing  a  piece  of  felt  between  the  form  and  the  face 
of  the  tile. 

The  rough  texture  of  wire-cut  brick  especially  adapts  itself 
to  the  decoration  of  a  rough-faced  concrete,  and  very  pleasing 
examples  of  this  combination  of  materials  have  been  obtained  by 
using  the  brick  in  the  form  of  sills,  friezes  and  jiancls.  Brick 
may  logically  form  the  spandrels  and  curtain  walls  between  the 
piers  and  lintels  characteristic  of  concrete  construction,  giving  a 
pleasing  and  harmonious  relief  to  the  main  structural  members. 
Similarity  of  texture  and  contrast  of  color  in  these  two  materials 
offer  a  wide  field  for  the  most  artistic  decoration.  Molded 
members  cast  in  concrete  with  a  smootli  finish,  popularly  called 


94  COXCRETE    AND    STUCCO    HOUSES 

"  artificial  stone,"  may  be  used  to  great  advantage  as  a  frame 
for  openings  and  for  cornices,  bands,  panels  and  other  molded 
parts  in  contrast  to  a  field  of  rough,  scrubbed  concrete.  These 
cast  members  may  contain  modeled  ornament  cast  in  colored 
cement,  but  care  must  be  taken  in  the  use  of  color  not  to  weaken 
the  strength  of  the  cement  by  indulging  too  liberally  in  the  use 
of  pigments.  Faience  holds  its  color  better  than  colored  cements 
and  is  both  durable  and  effective  in  conjunction  with  concrete, 
the  latter  being  an  excellent  foil  for  faience  trimmings  and  panels. 

Wrought  iron  is  especially  suited  to  the  decoration  of  con- 
crete surfaces.  It  is  often  used  in  the  form  of  window  and  door 
grilles,  where  the  iron  contrasts  well  with  a  wall  of  almost  any 
color  and  texture.  Fashioned  to  receive  and  hold  flower-boxes, 
wrought  iron  receptacles  are  a  particularly  pleasing  and  logical 
embellishment  to  a  concrete  fa9ade,  and  when  employed  for  win- 
dow balconies  tliis  material  serves  the  double  purpose  of  decora- 
tion and  an  excuse  for  using  the  casement  window,  which,  when 
properly  designed,  is  more  serviceable,  more  healthful  and  far 
more  beautiful  of  form  than  the  rise-and-fall  type. 

Lattice  or  trellis-work  is  a  valuable  adjunct  to  stucco  and 
concrete  in  breaking  up  a  too  monotonous  stretch  of  wall  surface 
and  in  concentrating  the  eye  about  some  salient  feature  such  as 
a  door  or  an  archway.  It  serves  the  purpose  of  a  support  for 
vines,  and  until  these  become  sturdy  in  growth,  affords  an  effec- 
tive and  inexpensive  form  of  decoration. 

Attention  should  be  briefly  directed  to  the  manner  in  which 
reinforced  concrete  has  raised  the  standard  of  esthetics  in  bridge 
building.  To  remove  from  sight  the  hideous  iron  and  steel  ren- 
derings that  so  often  mar  the  landscape  and  to  replace  them  as 
cheaply  by  structures  rivaling  in  beauty  and  equaling  in  per- 
manence the  great  stone  monuments  of  the  past,  would  alone 
place  reinforced  concrete  in  the  foremost  rank  of  building 
material. 


forrt-rt  .!■  tfttttlna*,  nriltlticta 


"Ktllinitidii  in  rvrrv  liiK-  of  tlii>U);lil  li<-);ins  uitli  tlir  disk  of  inpyiiik'  sDiiictliiii;;  lliiil  |i:.s 
almicly  Iwrii  ilmu'.      Nu  niic  is  €|iiilo  (in^iiiitl,  mil  ovrii  tlir  liiiiiilic" 


Manufactured  Stone 


A  HIGH  degree  of  skill  is  required  in  casting  concrete  for 
steps,  sills,  copings,  balustrades  and  the  like,  employed  as 
exterior  members  in  place  of  stone,  but  when  it  comes  to 
the  construction  of  objects  of  art,  such  as  mantels,  vases,  tables, 
benches,  sundials,  statues,  fountains  and  various  other  ornaments 
used  for  indoor  decoration  and  for  the  garden,  skill  must  be 
combined  with  infinite  care  and  attention. 

The  illustrations  are  of  interest  in  showing  the  success  which 
intelligent  and  painstaking  workmanship  has  achieved  in  execut- 
ing in  a  much  less  costly  material,  architectiu'al  ornament  that 
formerly  required  for  its  mediimi  of  expression,  granite,  lime- 
stone or  marble. 

The  advent  of  white  Portland  cement  has  increased  the  out- 
put of  manufactured  stone  very  materially  for  the  reason  that  a 
greater  variety  of  color  has  been  made  possible  through  its  use, 
alone,  and  hi  combination  with  the  gray  cements  and  pigments, 
although  on  the  other  hand  its  al)use  is  shown  in  tlie  many  ex- 
amples that  have  the  appearance  of  being  made  of  plaster.  When 
properly  used,  however,  white  cement  in  conjunction  with  judi- 
ciously selected  aggregate  is  capable  of  producing  very  beautiful 
objects  resembling  marble  and  light-colored  stone. 

Models  for  ornamental  concrete  castings  that  are  to  have  a 
tooled  finish  are  generally  prepared  in  a  composition  called 
'■  plasterUne,"  instead  of  in  clay,  for  the  reason  that  clay  lias 
not  sufficient  stiffness  to  impart  the  impress  of  the  tool  mark* 
upon  the  plaster  which  envelops  it  for  the  purpose  of  forming 
the  mold.  In  properly  executed  work  every  tool  mark  on  the 
model  is  reproduced  in  clean,  sharp  lines  upon  the  finished  prod- 


96 


CONCRETE   AND    STUCCO   HOUSES 


uct,  the  impress  being  taken  when  the  wet  concrete  is  poured  into 
the  mold  and  tamped.  A  dense  mixture  should  always  be  em- 
ployed, for  the  introduction  of  one  of  the  so-called  waterproofing 
compounds  as  an  ingredient  weakens  the  mixture,  while  surface 
applications  that  would  not  injure  the  appearance  of  the  object, 
are  not  lasting.  Coarse  marble  dust  may  be  used  as  an  aggregate 
where  white  or  light-colored  objects  are  desired,  care  being  taken 
to  avoid  the  fine  grades,  as  the  cement  requires  a  gritty  substance 


First  floor  plan,  alteration  to  residence  of  R.  A.  C.  Smith,  Esq.,  Greenwich,  Conn. 
Oswald  C.  Bering,  architect 

to  insure  a  good  bond.  Greater  strength  in  this  respect  is  achieved 
in  the  use  of  an  aggregate  of  crushed  granite  or  limestone  screen- 
ings which,  when  mixed  with  a  proper  proportion  of  cement  and 
carefully  tamped  into  the  mold,  gives  a  stony  texture  of  suffi- 
cient density  and  evenness  of  line  to  be  retouched,  or  even  ex- 
tensively tooled,  after  the  casting  is  made.  The  mixture  should 
not  be  too  wet  or  surface  crazing  wUl  occur,  and  an  uneven  mix- 
ture may  result  from  the  segregation  of  the  aggregate,  so  that 
some  areas  will  be  "  rich  "  and  others  "  poor  "  in  cement.  This 
will  produce  a  casting  that  lacks  uniformity  both  in  strength  and 


MANUFACTURED    STONE 


97 


color.  The  general  complaint  that  the  arrises  (edges)  of  con- 
crete are  apt  to  be  irregular  and  easily  marred,  may  be  overcome 
if  care  is  taken  in  properly  preparing  the  mixture,  in  filling 
the  mold  and  in  removing  it  so  that  no  arris  is  broken  and  no 
patching  required,  and  if  sufficient  time  is  allowed  for  the  casting 
to  "  season,"  by  which  is  meant  keeping  it  wet  for  a  month  or 
more,  either  by  sprinkling  or  submerging  it.  Architectural  de- 
tails such  as  balustrades,  copings,  sills  and  hntels,  are  frequently 


Secondifloor  plan,  alteration  to  residence  of  R.  A.  C.  Smith,  Esq.,  Greenwich,  Conn. 
Oswald  C.  Hcring,  architect 

cast  on  the  site  of  the  building.  Rails  and  copings,  if  not  cast 
in  lengths  of  over  four  feet,  need  not  be  reinforced,  as  tliey  will 
not  shrink,  but  the  sections  shoidd  be  doweled  at  the  joints  when 
set  in  place  and  the  joints  pointed  precisely  as  with  stone.  The 
material  used  should  be  monolithic  and  should  not  have  a  core 
of  any  other  material,  for  otherwise  sandpapering,  tooling  or  other 
methods  of  finishing  might  cause  the  outer  surface  to  break  off. 
In  making  balusters  these  should  be  cast  from  the  end  of  a  three- 
piece  mold,  a  diagonal  mold  being  employed  for  a  square 
baluster.  If  the  material  contains  the  proper  ingredients,  thor- 
oughly tamped  into  the  mold,  the  product  may  be  stripped  in 


98  CONCRETE    AND    STUCCO    HOUSES 

thirty  hours,  any  defects  patched  while  the  concrete  is  green,  and 
then  sprayed  or  immersed  in  clean  water.  Patching  of  stucco 
and  concrete,  as  has  already  been  said,  cannot  be  done  after  the 
cement  has  set  without  producing  a  difference  in  color,  no  matter 
how  careful  the  workniansliip  may  be.  Bases,  bands  and  other 
flat  members  may  often  be  more  readily  and  more  economically 
"  run  "  or  modeled  in  place  than  cast  and  then  set  in  place. 

Climatic  conditions  in  this  country,  particularly  in  the  spring 
and  fall,  when  frost  alternates  with  warm  temperatures,  are 
severe  on  all  kinds  of  concrete  construction,  but  provided  the  con- 
crete is  well  made  it  should  suffer  no  greater  disintegration  than 
the  hardest  stone  exposed  in  a  similar  manner.  So  far  as  stains 
and  discolorations  are  concerned,  much  the  same  may  be  said 
of  concrete  garden  furniture  as  of  the  walls  of  the  house  —  that 
the  weatherbeaten  marks  of  age  improve  the  appearance  of  these 
objects,  and  unless  the  initial  stains  are  due  to  physical  defects 
they  are  not  necessarily  objectionable. 

There  is  no  doubt  that  manufactured  stone  affords  a  legiti- 
mate and  attractive  field  for  expression  in  decorative  design. 
Thorough  training  and  long  experience  are  necessary,  however, 
both  on  the  part  of  tlie  designer  and  the  maker,  to  produce  ac- 
ceptable compositions.  Knowledge  must  be  had  of  what  is  practi- 
cal and  desirable  in  design,  of  the  quality  and  behavior  of  the 
materials  employed,  and  of  how  to  make  the  models  and  the 
molds,  whether  of  sand,  of  plaster  or  of  gelatine.  The  first  rule 
that  should  govern  manufactured  stone  is  the  necessity  of  employ- 
ing honest  and  intelligent  labor.  A  disregard  of  tliis  requirement 
is  the  cause  of  many  worthless  concrete  products.  It  is  imi^ossible 
to  make  beautiful  objects  in  stone  or  marble  with  cheap  and 
ignorant  labor,  and  the  same  may  be  said  of  manufactured  stone. 
The  arcliitect  may,  for  example,  write  a  most  carefulh"  prepared 
specification  for  such  ornamental  castings  as  his  design  calls 
for,  but  if  he  cannot  obtain  the  services  of  experienced  and  intelh- 


RotxTI  tiarid  Far^uHar.  tirfhUfct 


"Wi-iirr  still  iiiiiri' or  lrs.s  in  llifcopyiiitJ  »t«>;r,  llniii({lillii'  iH'^inninKsnf  ii  ilcsin-  loiiilapt  tniilitioii 
III  pn-M'nl  m'C(l>  iirr  luilictuMi'  in  lln'  niiirv  nirni  i-\iinipl<'>  of  onr  lH'>t  iinliilifts" 


s  a. 

—  -3 


MANUFACTURED    STONE  09 

gent  mechanics  properly  to  execute  the  work  in  accordance  with 
these  instructions,  the  finished  product  will  be  unsatisfactory  no 
matter  what  the  cost.  The  art  of  making  ornamental  objects  in 
concrete  is  very  old,  and  the  fact  that  examples  exist  to-day  is 
due  to  the  time,  care  and  intelligence  employed  in  their  manu- 
facture. "  Rush  "  orders  were  not  so  common  in  olden  times 
and  the  work  was  not  hurried,  and  therefore  of  necessity  slighted, 
as  so  often  is  the  case  to-day,  more  particularly  in  America. 

Ornaments  in  manufactured  stone  are  extensively  made  at 
the  present  time  in  Europe,  where  the  art  is  more  advanced  than 
in  this  country,  as  imported  works  would  indicate,  but  the  grow- 
ing appreciation  on  the  part  of  the  public  of  the  possibilities  of 
this  branch  of  the  cement  industry,  and  the  increasing  attention 
given  to  questions  of  design  and  construction,  are  fast  pro- 
ducing better  results.  The  time  would  seem  to  be  not  far  dis- 
tant when  concrete  will  very  largely  supplant  marble  and  stone 
where  castings  are  practical.  These  should  not  be  termed  "  imi- 
tations "  of  stone,  for  the  ingredients  are  largely  the  same  as  are 
found  in  real  stone.  Nature's  process  of  employing  time  and 
gravity  lias  simply  been  superseded  and  accelerated  by  JNIan's 
mechanical  ingenuity. 


The  Dawn  of  American  Architecture 


A  WRITER  on  architectural  subjects  has  said  that  American 
architecture  seemed  to  be  the  covering  of  one  thing  with 
another  to  imitate  a  third  wliich  if  genuine  would  be  unde- 
sirable.   This  will  not  be  said  of  renderings  in  rehiforced  concrete, 
which  usually  have  been  aggressively  truthful. 

The  architectural  creations  in  the  styles  of  bygone  times  that 
are  worthy  of  note  have  portrayed  the  characteristics  of  the  people 
at  a  high  stage  of  their  mental  and  moral  development.  The  rise 
and  fall  of  a  nation  is  unconsciously  pictured  in  its  architecture. 
We  Americans  are  no  exception  to  the  rule.  We  have  had  no 
architectural  "  style "  since  Colonial  days,  because  since  then 
our  civilization  has  been  growing  so  rapidly,  and  changes  have 
occurred  in  our  method  of  life  so  frequenth',  that  an  artistic  ex- 
pression of  our  national  life  has  been  futile,  if  not  impossible. 
We  outgrow  each  new  idea  before  we  fairly  have  a  chance  to 
use  it.  We  welcome  the  cable  car  as  an  improvement  on  the 
horse  car  and  no  sooner  install  this  mode  of  transportation  than 
we  rip  it  out  in  favor  of  electric  propulsion.  We  become  bicycle- 
mad  and  build  up  a  great  industry  to  supply  us  with  this  agree- 
able form  of  locomotion,  only  to  throw  our  treasured  "  safeties  " 
into  the  scrap  heap  at  the  first  honk  of  the  automobile.  And 
now  comes  the  aeroplane  with  its  growing  bid  for  popularity, 
and  they  say  the  automobile  has  had  its  day.  The  steel-skeleton 
office  building  of  fifteen  stories  scarcely  earned  its  title  to  one  of 
the  wonders  of  the  age  before  it  was  torn  down  to  make  way 
for  the  "  skyscraper."  The  contents  of  this  book  could  be 
doubled  by  a  recitation  of  the  "  improvements  "  that  have  come 
within  the  past  fifty  years  alone,  one  upon  the  heels  of  the  other. 


DAWN   OF   A3IERICAN   ARCHITECTURE    101 

each  sweeping  its  predecessor  out  of  the  way  almost  before  accord- 
ing it  a  decent  welcome'.  How,  mider  such  disturbing  conditions, 
can  we  as  a  nation  possibly  expect  to  be  pictured  in  an  archi- 
tecture of  any  force,  clearness  and  dignity?  When  we  settle 
down,  we  shall  have  an  architecture. 

Education,  in  every  line  of  thought,  begins  with  the  task  of 
copying  something  that  has  already  been  done.  No  one  is  quite 
original,  not  even  the  lunatic.  We  are  still  more  or  less  in  the 
copjnng  stage,  though  the  beginnings  of  a  desire  to  adapt  tra- 
dition to  present  needs  are  noticeable  in  the  most  recent  examples 
of  our  best  architects.  We  are  also  busy  experimenting  in  the 
use  of  a  lot  of  new  building  materials  of  which  our  forefatliers 
knew  little  or  nothing.  Among  these  reinforced  concrete  has 
roused  more  than  curiosity.  The  pictured  possibilities  of  this 
union  of  steel,  cement  and  crushed  stone  created  an  enthusiasm 
so  great  as  to  give  it  a  black  eye  almost  at  its  birth  by  reason  of 
the  blunders  committed  in  design  and  construction.  Sober  re- 
flection and  a  careful  study  of  the  properties  of  reinforced  con- 
crete, and  of  the  lines  along  which  it  may  be  rationally  developed, 
will  no  doubt  soon  contribute  new  and  better  examples  in  con- 
struction and  appearance.  A  thorough  appreciation  of  the 
characteristics  of  the  material  used  is  a  first  requirement  for 
the  success  of  any  design. 

Concrete  is  not  yet  generally  understood,  and,  resembling 
stone  as  it  does,  the  first  tendency  of  the  designer  was  to  emj)loy 
it  in  the  performance  of  the  functions  of  stone  and  consequently 
as  a  cheap  imitation  thereof.  The  result  was  dismal  failure  that 
brought  down  a  storm  of  criticism,  not  so  much  of  the  employer 
as  of  the  innocent  employee.  The  principles  of  design  in  Classic 
and  Gothic  architecture  are  not  successfully  employed  in  terms 
of  reinforced  concrete.  In  articulated  design  the  area  of  the 
wall  surface  always  exceeds  the  area  of  the  openings,  due  to 
the  physical  restrictions  governing  the  length  of  a  stone  lintel 


102         COXCRETE   AND   STUCCO   HOUSES 

in  the  performance  of  its  task.  Reinforced  concrete  is  capable 
of  far  greater  spans,  and  consequently  the  proportion  of  piers 
to  openings  is  the  reverse  of  that  in  stone.  It  is  not  necessary, 
however,  for  these  structural  "  openings  "  to  be  filled  with  glass. 
A  part  of  the  area  between  the  piers  may  contain  windows  and 
the  surrounding  field  may  consist  of  any  material  suited  to  the 
purpose  of  the  building.  Again,  forces  expressed  in  the  vaulted 
and  buttressed  arch  of  Gotliic  design  have  no  significance  in  a 
similarly  shaped  arch  of  reinforced  concrete. 

The  forces  of  reinforced  concrete  suggest,  therefore,  certain 
departures  from  accepted  forms  utilized  in  wooden  and  stone 
architecture.  For  example,  in  place  of  the  straight  horizontal 
beam  and  the  semi-circular  masonry  arch,  there  appears  the  flat- 
tened arch  with  brackets  at  the  point  of  juncture  of  beam  and 
column,  a  weak  point  in  concrete  construction  and  logically 
strengthened  by  these  corbels.  The  beam  of  long  sjjan  is  a  char- 
acteristic of  reinforced  concrete,  making  possible  a  room  of  great 
area  without  the  necessity  of  supiJorting  columns  and  at  com- 
paratively small  cost.  Again,  there  appears  the  fiat  roof  as 
distinguished  from  the  pitched  roof.  The  latter  was  almost 
always  constructed  of  wood,  and  sened  the  various  purposes 
of  providing  needed  space  for  living-rooms,  for  storage,  as  an 
"  air  space  "  for  the  better  comfort  of  the  occupants  of  the  story 
below,  and  for  shedding  rain  and  snow.  The  pitch  grew  steeper 
in  regions  where  snow  and  ice  prevailed  longer.  Reinforced 
concrete,  being  sufficiently  strong  to  bear  any  snow  load,  and  a 
poor  conductor  of  heat,  the  flat  roof  becomes  the  logical  covering 
of  residences  built  of  tliis  material.  Aside  from  logic,  the  adapta- 
bility of  a  flat  roof  for  use  and  enjoj-ment  is  self-evident.  The  at- 
tractions of  the  roof  garden  in  civic  architecture  suggest  a  loggia 
treatment  for  the  top  storj'  of  the  country  house  as  pleasing  in  ap- 
pearance and  delightful  in  use.  The  familiar  ground-floor  loggia 
which  is  gradually  supplanting  the  columned  porch  in  popularity, 


"  Casa  del  /'antr.'    /{nir*jytnn.  f 

"'riif  iMiliIrr  .spiril 


*  of  ihr  pnif.»ii,ii  will  iitit  fiiit  lt>  Iniiistntr  \\w  ImnduritinK  on 

till"  Wull  IVi  tlir  lM'<-k«i|)iitt^'  of  nplMirtllllil^v" 


DAWX    OF    AMERICAN    ARCHITECTURE    103 

because  of  the  readiness  with  which  it  can  be  screened  in  summer, 
and  glazed  and  heated  in  winter,  has  become  such  a  magnet  as  to 
draw  the  family  liither  to  the  neglect  of  the  old-fasliioned  "parlor" 
—  even  the  modern  living-room  is  deserted  in  favor  of  this  new- 
comer made  fascinating  all  the  year  round  by  "  invisible  "  screens, 
fireplace  and  auxihary  heating.  Were  the  roof  to  be  crowned 
with  this  solarium,  the  temptation  to  abandon  as  well  the  dining- 
room  and  the  sleeping-rooms  would  appear  to  be  warranted.  It 
is  hardly  necessary  to  state  that  these  new  forms  can  be  handled 
successfully  only  by  an  experienced  designer.  The  worst  enemies 
of  concrete,  so  far,  are  those  of  its  friends  who  are  ignorant  of 
the  first  principles  of  design,  and  who  in  a  misguided  effort  to 
attract  attention  to  its  virtues  (and  to  themselves)  have  erected 
liideous  structures  embodying  all  manner  of  "  stunts,"  which,  while 
often  excellent  in  suggestion,  have  been  abominably  fashioned. 
If  ever  there  was  a  building  material  which  required,  more  than 
another,  the  hand  of  an  exceptionally  well  trained  architect  to 
bring  out  its  salient  features,  that  substance  is  concrete. 

Architects  are  as  a  class  consenative,  for  the  reason  that  their 
art  is  the  expression  of  the  habits  of  the  people  whom  they  sers'e. 
The  individual  does  not  alter  his  mode  of  life  from  day  to  day 
nor  from  year  to  year.  A  nation  may  change  its  government 
over  night,  but  the  forces  that  effect  the  revolution  have  had  a 
gradual  growth.  It  is  natural,  therefore,  that  the  architect  should 
view  with  suspicion,  and  even  dislike,  a  building  material  that  from 
its  nature  requires  the  abandoning  of  many  forms  of  design 
hitherto  regarded  as  basic,  and  that  calls  for  the  modification  of 
methods  and  revising  of  rules  that  have  been  fixtures  in  the  art 
of  architecture  for  centuries.  The  fact  that  concrete,  and  more 
particularly  reinforced  concrete,  demands  a  new  style  of  archi- 
tecture, is  a  shock  to  our  fraternity  sufficient  in  itself  to  account 
for  much  of  the  silent  and  expressed  hostility  towards  this  radical 
newcomer.     The  bolder  spirits  of  the  profession,  however,  will 


104         CONCRETE   AND    STUCCO   HOUSES 

not  fail  to  translate  the  handwriting  on  the  wall  as  the  beckoning 
of  opportunity,  and  a  promise  of  glory  and  fame  with  no  mean 
financial  reward  will  spur  these  men  to  achieve  the  solution  of  the 
problems  indicated  despite  the  failures  and  criticism  that  will 
accompany  their  initial  attempts.  A  review  of  the  astonishing 
number  of  recent  inventions  turned  to  practical  use  within  a 
decade,  largely  revolutionizing  thought  and  procedure  witliin  tliis 
short  space  of  time  —  to  mention  only  wireless  telegraphy,  the 
automobile,  the  aeroplane,  the  cash  register,  the  talking  macliine, 
the  player  piano  and  the  motion  picture  —  leads  to  the  conclusion 
that  arcliitects  of  force  and  foresight  will  not  permit  reinforced 
concrete  to  hide  its  light  under  a  bushel. 

Architecture  which  expresses  the  function  of  the  object,  which 
exhibits  a  logical  use  of  the  material  used,  and  offers  a  pleasing 
proportion  of  light  and  shade,  is  good  architecture.  Reinforced 
concrete  is  quite  as  susceptible  to  such  expression  as  any  material 
that  has  heretofore  been  used,  and  promises  far  greater  possi- 
bilities in  construction  and  beauty  than  have  been  recorded  even 
in  the  architecture  of  the  Greeks  and  the  Goths.  It  will  express, 
as  did  these  agencies,  the  spirit  and  needs  of  the  people.  Crude 
and  wholly  utilitarian  at  the  beginning,  concrete  architecture  will 
gradually  acquire  refinement  and  nobility  as  social  development 
advances. 

The  author  agrees  with  those  who  believe  that  concrete  should 
stand  for  concrete,  and  who  advocate  the  decoration  of  construc- 
tion rather  than  "  constructed  decoration."  In  following  this 
doctrine,  the  monohtliic  form,  showing  the  aggregate  embellished 
as  suggested,  seems  to  indicate  a  way  in  which  the  esthetic  develop- 
ment of  reinforced  concrete  may  be  carried  along  rational  lines, 
and  an  ultimate  perfection  of  design  reached  with  greater  facility 
and  in  less  time  than  through  the  use  of  either  steel  or  masonry 
alone.  An  artistic  rendering  of  reinforced  concrete  will  occur 
through  a  frank  manifestation  of  its  own  characteristics  of  light- 


DAWN   OF   AJVIERICAN   ARCHITECTURE    105 

ness,  delicacy  and  absence  of  deep  shadows,  as  well  as  of  the 
purpose  and  function  of  the  structure.  With  the  employment  of 
logical  ornamentation,  either  molded  or  flat,  or  of  superficial  or 
incrusted  polychromy,  as  may  best  serve  the  purpose,  the  truth 
and  harmony  of  the  whole  will  be  clearly  revealed. 

Whether  an  American  style  is  to  be  realized  through  reinforced 
concrete  or  some  other  mediimi,  the  prime  factor  of  importance 
to  be  observed  in  following  any  style  is  honesty  of  purpose.  Only 
through  the  truthful  expression  of  aim  and  function,  and  a  simple 
and  durable  structure  harmonizing  with  the  forces  of  Nature 
within  it  and  upon  it,  can  our  architects  hope  to  win  lasting  honor 
and  fame  by  contributing  to  the  evolution  of  an  architecture 
worthy  of  the  name  of  our  great  nation. 


University  of  California 

SOUTHERN  REGIONAL  LIBRARY  FACILITY 

305  De  Neve  Drive  -  Parking  Lot  17   •  Box  951388 

LOS  ANGELES,  CALIFORNIA  90095-1388 


Return  this  material  to  the  library  from  which  it  was  borrowed. 


UCLA-AUPL 

NA  7160  H4 


L  005  857  054  0 


'_r  sr».'~Ei*H  ofKnui  '.tSPAP*  c»/>." 


llllTIIIllllI 


.UNIV.  OF  CALIF.  LIBRARY.  LOS  »N  Q     qOO  572  707     8 


